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We investigated the effects of just-in-time guidance at various stages of inquiry learning by novice learners. Thirteen participants, randomly assigned to an intervention (n = 8) or control (n = 5) group, were observed as they learned about DC electric circuits using a web-based simulation. Just-in-time instructional prompts to observe, predict, explain, systematically test, collect evidence, and generate rules were strongly associated with diagnosing and correcting misconceptions, and constructing correct scientific concepts. Students' repeated use of predictions, systematic testing, and evidence-coordinated reasoning often led to formulating new principles, generalizing from observed patterns, verifying comprehension, and experiencing "Aha!" moments. Justin-time prompts helped learners manage embedded cognitive challenges in inquiry tasks, achieve a comprehensive understanding of the model represented in the simulation, and show significantly higher knowledge gain. Just-in-time prompts also promoted rejection of incorrect models of inquiry and construction of robust scientific mental models. The results suggest ways of customizing guidance to promote scientific learning within simulation environments.

In scientific inquiry learning, within-task guidance tailored to the learner's domain knowledge and inquiry skill may be essential to promote intended learning outcomes. However, due to dynamic complexity across the timeline of inquiry learning, principles for designing tailored guidance are elusive. In this study, experienced tutors provided just-in-time guidance to 11 learners. We analysed tutor-learner interactions to investigate how tutors adapted guidance. We found tutors provided five types of guidance: prompts, support for domain knowledge, assessments, hints, and feedback. Guidance was provided when learners made errors, expressed difficulties, or asked questions; or when the tutor judged a learner successfully demonstrated a skill and was ready to progress to a follow-on skill. Based on these results, we propose a model for tailored, just-in-time guidance in simulation-assisted inquiry learning environments.

Developing knowledge-transforming skills in writing may help students increase learning by actively building knowledge, regardless of the domain. However, many undergraduate students struggle to transform knowledge when drafting essays based on multiple sources. Writing analytics can be used to scaffold knowledge transforming as writers bring evidence to bear in supporting claims. We investigated how to automatically identify sentences representing knowledge transformation in argumentative essays. A synthesis of cognitive theories of writing and Bloom's typology identified 22 linguistic features to model processes of knowledge transforming in a corpus of 38 undergraduates' essays. Findings indicate undergraduates mostly paraphrase or copy information from multiple sources rather than engage deeply with sources' content. Eight linguistic features were important for discriminating evidential sentences as telling versus transforming source knowledge. We trained a machine learning algorithm that accurately classified nearly three of four evidential sentences as knowledge-telling or knowledge-transforming, offering potential for use in future research.

We investigated knowledge and attitudes before and after reading refutation texts augmented by different kinds of persuasive information and how emotions mediated the process of knowledge and attitude change. Undergraduates (N = 424) enrolled in 4 universities from 3 countries read a refutation text on genetically modified foods (GMFs) and were then randomly assigned to receive additional information about advantages of GMFs, disadvantages of GMFs, or both. After studying, students reading about advantages of GMFs had significantly more positive attitudes than students who read about disadvantages. There was also a significant reduction in misconceptions; participants in the positive-oriented text condition showed the largest learning gains, particularly those who held more positive initial attitudes. Epistemic emotions of curiosity, frustration, hope, and enjoyment mediated attitude change while confusion mediated relations between prereading attitudes and postreading knowledge. In addition, the direct relationship between prior attitudes and surprise was moderated by type of text. When reading about both advantages and disadvantages of GMFs, participants reported significantly less surprise when compared with those who read about either advantages or disadvantages of GMFs. To foster conceptual change when learning about complex topics, refutation texts may be paired with persuasive information that is aligned with accurate conceptions.

A program of research is necessary to examine the psychometric properties of instruments designed to measure individuals' achievement goal orientations. Recently, research on achievement goal orientation has examined the stability of achievement goals to assess how context might influence individuals' achievement goals. Accordingly, studies are necessary to establish factorial invariance across contexts. We examined the psychometric properties of the Achievement Goal Questionnaire (AGQ; Elliot & McGregor, 2001) across task contexts within a single classroom environment. We tested the factor structure by comparing five competing models and evaluated the invariance of the factor structure across four task contexts. Results revealed that the hypothesized four-factor structure was replicated, construct- and discriminant-related evidence of validity were supported, and both internal consistency and test-retest reliability estimates were satisfactory. Moreover, invariance held at all levels across the various contexts. (Contains 6 tables.)

Recent research has shown that for some topics, messages to refute and revise misconceptions may backfire. The current research offers one possible account for this backfire effect (i.e., the ironic strengthening of belief in erroneous information after an attempted refutation) from an educational psychology perspective and examines whether emotions mediate the relationship between self-concept and learning from refutation texts. In an experimental design, 120 undergraduate students responded to a questionnaire focused on their dietary self-concept and were randomly assigned to read an expository or refutation text on the topic of genetically modified foods. Immediately after reading, participants self-reported their emotions followed by completing post-test measures of their knowledge and attitudes of the topic. Results showed an interaction between self-concept and text condition on emotions wherein self-concept predicted negative emotions (i.e., confusion, anxiety, frustration) while reading a refutation text specifically. Further, negative emotions significantly mediated relations between self-concept and post-test knowledge and attitudes. Implications for educational design and future research are discussed.

We examined achievement goals measured by self-reports and by traces (behavioral indicators) gathered as undergraduates used software tools to study a multimedia-formatted article. Traces were operationalized by tags participants applied to selections of text and hyperlinks they clicked in the article. Tags and hyperlinks were titled to represent achievement goal orientations. Self-reported goal orientations did not correlate with goals traced as actions. In separate regression models, traces of goal orientations were stronger predictors of achievement than self reports. We suggest future research include traces in studies of achievement goals because traces reflect proximal events that comprise learning activities that can supplement static orientations that are operationally defined to be indifferent to the dynamics of learning activities. (Contains 3 tables and 1 figure.)

In theoretical models of self-regulated learning, calibration is one important component in successful learning. Two issues of calibration are explored. First, Nelson (1987) suggested the "G" (gamma) coefficient is the most appropriate measure of calibration (judgment accuracy) and rejected signal detection theory's "d'" statistic because data commonly challenge distributional assumptions. We empirically examined this issue, comparing "G" and "d'." Second, we examined whether a learner's calibration varies across three domains of knowledge: general, word, and mathematics. A sample of 266 university students volunteered to participate in the study. Participants were selected from various undergraduate and graduate courses. Participants first answered demographic items. Then they completed three knowledge tests (general, word, and mathematics) and judged correctness for each answer provided. Order of domains was randomly counterbalanced among participants. Results show that "d'" is a valid measure of calibration, that assumptions about underlying distributions can be tested, and that preliminary evidence suggests that "d'" may be a superior measure of accuracy compared to "G." Finally, calibration varied by domain.

Background: A program of research is needed that assesses the psychometric properties of instruments designed to quantify students' achievement goal orientations to clarify inconsistencies across previous studies and to provide a stronger basis for future research. Aim: We conducted traditional psychometric and modern Rasch-model analyses of the Achievement Goals Questionnaire (AGQ, Elliot & McGregor, 2001) and the Patterns of Adaptive Learning Scale (PALS, Midgley "et al.", 2000) to provide an in-depth analysis of the two most popular instruments in educational psychology. Samples and methods: For Study 1, 217 undergraduate students enrolled in educational psychology courses participated. Thirty-four were male and 181 were female (two did not respond). Participants completed the AGQ in the context of their educational psychology class. For Study 2, 126 undergraduate students enrolled in educational psychology courses participated. Thirty were male and 95 were female (one did not respond). Participants completed the PALS in the context of their educational psychology class. Results: Traditional psychometric assessments of the AGQ and PALS replicated previous studies. For both, reliability estimates ranged from good to very good for raw subscale scores and fit for the models of goal orientations were good. Based on traditional psychometrics, the AGQ and PALS are valid and reliable indicators of achievement goals. Rasch analyses revealed that estimates of reliability for items were very good but respondent ability estimates varied from poor to good for both the AGQ and PALS. These findings indicate that items validly and reliably reflect a group's aggregate goal orientation, but using either instrument to characterize an individual's goal orientation is hazardous.

Background: A programme of construct validity research is necessary to clarify previous research on self-regulation and to provide a stronger basis for future research. Aim: A multitrait-multimethod (MTMM) analysis was conducted to assess convergent and discriminant validity of three self-regulation measures: the Learning and Study Strategies Inventory (LASSI; Weinstein, 1987), the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ; Pintrich, Smith, Garcia, & McKeachie, 1993) and the Meta-cognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI; Schraw & Dennison, 1994). Method bias across all three inventories was also examined. Sample and method: Three hundred and eighteen undergraduate university students (255 female, 61 male, 2 did not specify) were recruited from various courses to participate in research on perceptions about studying and study methods. Participants spent 30-60 minutes completing all three inventories. Results: Evidence for convergent validity was found at the matrix level, but was attenuated when examined at the individual parameter level. Evidence for discriminant validity among traits was modest, and common method bias was evident across all three measures. Conclusions: Results revealed the three inventories yielded different results, which suggests that researchers should be selective in the inventory they use to assess self-regulated learning (SRL).

Links between students' achievement goal orientations and learning tactics were investigated using software (gStudy) that supports a variety of learning tactics and strategies. An achievement goal questionnaire was administered to 307 students enrolled in an introductory educational psychology course. Data tracing study tactics were logged for 80 of these students who prepared for a test by studying a textbook chapter presented as a multimedia document. Using correlations and canonical correlations, we found relationships between goal orientations and activity traces indicating different forms of cognitive engagement. Notably, mastery goal orientation (approach or avoidance) was negatively related to amount of highlighting, a study tactic that is theorized to be less effective than summarizing and other forms of elaborative annotation for assembling and integrating knowledge. (Contains 5 tables.)

A model of learning from instruction proposed that students perceive and cognitively respond to instructional stimuli before engaging learning processes per se. University students were trained to recognize only or to recognize and cognitively respond to teacher skills in lectures. Additional prelecture practice in recognition enhanced learning. (Author/GDC)