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In 1998, Congress directed the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) to conduct an analysis of issues related to the ways universities recover the facilities and administrative costs (also known as indirect costs) they incur when performing research under federal grants and contracts. At OSTP's request, the RAND Science and Technology Policy Institute prepared this report to present information on facilities and administrative costs in U.S. higher education. The report, which may be of interest to scientists, higher education administrators, and federal, state, and local governments, addresses the issues raised by Congress. It presents factual information and analysis of alternatives rather than taking positions on policy options. (Contains 51 references.) (EV)

As mandated by the U.S. Congress, this report evaluates the Learn and Serve America program's effects on higher education students (service providers), service recipients, and higher education institutions, and assesses the program's return on investment. An introduction summarizes the policy debate and reviews the study objectives and approach. Other sections: (1) review program accomplishments in direct service and capacity building; (2) assess the program's effects on student development; (3) assess the program's effects on communities; (4) assess the program's effects on colleges and universities as measured by four objectives (expanding student service opportunities, integrating service into course work, fostering mutually beneficial relationships with community organizations, and promoting sustainable programs); and (5) estimate the program's return on investment. The report finds that community organizations are strongly positive about the program; that institutional support is growing and an increasing number of service-learning courses are being offered; and that students are satisfied with their service learning courses. In measuring the program's return on investment, it was found that the value of services delivered increased sharply over three years relative to resources expended; in the third year, the return on investment was positive. (CH)

During the 1990s, policymakers have become increasingly attentive to the relationship between education and national economic health and society's need to upgrade and equalize workforce skills, talent, and wages. The U.S. education and training system is fragmented, decentralized, and in flux, as more responsibility moves from federal to state governments and the private sector. To explore how education might meet new economic challenges, the National Center for Research in Vocational Education joined with RAND to sponsor a policy exercise based on Department of Defense "war games." The June 1997 Policy Planning Exercise on Education and the New Economy assembled vocational-education researchers, federal and state vocational-education officials, leaders of interested nonprofit organizations, and business community representatives. Exercises required panelists to allocate funds for a January 1998 training program in a hypothetical "state," redesign a 2002 update of this education and training system, and apply what they had learned to federal policy in the near term. This paper synthesizes panelists observations about the nation's first-chance and second-chance education systems; standards, certifications, and institutional accountability; lifelong learning; teacher training and development; an integrated academic and vocational training system; and the federal government's role. (MLH)

This report examines what happened after the National Intercollegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) in 1986 raised its initial eligibility standards for freshmen (Proposition 48). Opponents believed that raising standards would unfairly restrict minority access to college, and consequently reduce the number of minority students who earn a bachelor's degree. In fact, application of Proposition 48's higher standards coincided with more rather than fewer minority students graduating from college. Over time, their share of all athletic scholarships actually increased. African-Americans who did not qualify for an athletic scholarship under Proposition 48 were frequently replaced by other African-Americans who may have been slightly less skilled athletically but were more able academically. Findings suggested that minority students would continue to succeed under NCAA standards due to take effect in 1996. These rules may result in talented athletes receiving fewer scholarships, but other students with a greater chance of graduating will take their place. (MAH)

This paper maintains that increasing Hispanic-American participation in higher education is a desirable public investment. It points out that the educational attainment of Hispanic-Americans has not kept pace with their increasing share of the population and the labor force, and that high school and college completion rates are lower than for other groups. This lower level of attainment translates into lower lifetime earnings and decreased tax revenues for federal and state governments. Increasing the college participation level of the cohort of Hispanic-Americans from birth through age 18 to that of White Americans would increase federal tax revenues an estimated $10 billion per year. Increasing the high school and college completion rates of the same cohort to that of White Americans would increase federal tax revenues an estimated $19 billion per year. (MDM)

Individualized instruction significantly improves students' pedagogical and motivational outcomes. The study described here sought to characterize tutorial behaviors that could lead to these benefits and to consider why these behaviors should be pedagogically useful. The experiment studied 16 undergraduate and graduate university students learning LISP programming with the assistance of a tutor. Tutoring sessions were audiotaped, allowing analysis of every verbal utterance during the sessions and identification of the conversational events that led to pedagogical success. This discourse analysis suggested that tutors were successful because they took a very active role in leading the problem solving by offering confirmatory feedback and additional guidance while students were on profitable paths and error feedback after mistakes. However, tutors carefully structured their feedback to allow students to perform as much of the work as possible while ensuring that problem solving stayed on track. These results suggested the types of strategies tutors employ to facilitate guided learning by doing. Instructions for coders and reliability coders and a table showing transitions between events are appended. (Contains 72 references.) (Author/ND)

This paper presents findings of a study that analyzed the trends that will shape the California budget over the next decade. The study assumed that current demographic and economic trends, tax policies, and mandated spending programs will continue through the next decade, and projects their implications for state general-fund revenues and spending through 2005. Three trends appear likely to dominate the state's long-term fiscal condition: (1) state revenues will grow moderately; (2) "receiver populations" (the elderly, school-age children, and others who depend on state aid) will grow at least as fast as revenues; and (3) corrections costs will skyrocket. These trends will result in a growing squeeze on public services and battle among constituencies for scarce funds. If current laws and policies do not change, the best estimates for 2005 place health and welfare spending at 32 percent, corrections at 20 percent, and K-14 education at 39 percent of the state budget. The 20 percent that was available for higher education and all other government functions will be cut by more than half. The state will be hard-pressed to increase per-pupil spending in K-12 education fast enough to keep pace with inflation and may very well fall behind the rest of the nation. If current trends persist to 2005, the University of California and the California State University systems will have to turn away more than 135,000 full-time-equivalent (FTE) students while the state's community colleges will turn away another 180,000 FTE, degree-credit students. California's long-term budget constraints may be limiting its future economic growth by limiting its investments in education. Forty-four tables and 24 figures are included. Appendices contain 13 additional tables, sensitivity to revenue and expense assumptions, and modeling K-12 expenditures. (Contains 16 references.) (LMI)

This study examines California's prospects for meeting the 1960 Master Plan goal of providing access to public undergraduate education to every Californian who could benefit from it in the context of the state's future demographic and fiscal environment. The study uses a dynamic simulation model to estimate the target level of education envisioned in the Master Plan and the levels likely to be attained under a range of scenarios. It finds that the state will not be able to meet even half of the target level demand overall. The study also finds that the prospects of closing this gap through increased revenues, increased fees, and increased productivity are not feasible. It concludes that the state must take two actions: (1) it must reevaluate the access goals of the Master Plan and focus on ways to maximize the return on its education investment; and (2) the three public systems should focus their resources on restructuring the way in which they deliver the education product to maximize the ability of the state to serve as many citizens as possible. (Contains 58 references.) (DB)

This paper describes the national demographic and economic context of higher education and offers interpretations of what it portends, in order to illuminate the changing environment of higher education. The discussion focuses on: (1) demographic trends, such as the projected annual enrollment growth in the 1990s of 1.2 percent and the increasing heterogeneity of the student body; (2) fiscal trends, such as flat or declining public revenues per full-time equivalent student, widespread tax limitation movements, and growth in private support; and (3) cost trends, such as consistently rising costs for instruction, administration, and research since the early 1960s, which have outstripped prices common to other sectors. Temporizing responses, or even neglect, might be the best answer to problems that stem from short-term, ephemeral perturbations in long-term trends, but substantial changes in institutions and systems may be needed to address problems engendered by fundamental shifts in the underlying demographic and economic forces. Higher education's institutions and systems will need to be substantially restructured to effectively serve society's future needs and expectations with the limited resources likely to be available to them in the future. (JDD)

The California Master Plan of 1960 defined relevant student populations and differentiated the missions of the University of California (UC), the California State Universities and Colleges (CSU), and the community colleges. Modern social forces are now complicating those missions. As the demand for high-quality instruction in the liberal arts and sciences has grown, the ability of UC to meet this demand has fallen behind, and CSU has graduated an increasing share of the baccalaureate students in these areas. The CSU's ability to attract high quality faculty has resulted in a much more research-oriented faculty, blurring the distinction between the CSU's and the UC's research missions. Concurrently, an increase in the pressures on institutions to meet access and equity objectives, coupled with the overall decline in the quality of secondary students entering the CSU and the UC and the increased participation of nontraditional student populations, have led to an increased need for these institutions to provide extensive remediation services, a role which was reserved for the community colleges under the Master Plan. Finally, the declining resource base within the state has caused all three of the public systems to reconsider their roles and missions. (Contains 11 references.) (JDD)

This report assesses the interim progress made toward increasing the college-going rate at 11 schools that received College Bound grants from the General Electric (GE) Foundation. It provides information about the kinds of programs developed, early indications of the effects the approaches have on promoting college going and influencing school change, and the ways in which the GE Foundation and local GE facilities provide support to the school beyond the actual grant. Participating schools strove to double the college-going rate for the school as a whole or to increase it significantly for a particular group of students. Data were collected during visits to 10 sites in spring 1992 and 1993. The schools were grouped into three categories: very challenged, somewhat challenged, and less challenged. Four general approaches to increasing the college-going rate were identified: ancillary services; supplemental instruction; improved curriculum and instruction for a target population; and improved curriculum and instruction schoolwide. Four sites doubled their college-going rate and two showed significant improvement. It is concluded that: (1) grants can support major changes in the school; (2) successful grant programs can encourage more ambitious school reform; (3) even the most challenged schools can succeed; (4) sponsoring significant school change requires time and resources; investment strategies can promote longer program survival; and (5) funders can influence a program throughout the course of the grant. One figure and 6 tables are included. The appendix describes each of the 11 College Bound programs. (LMI)

A research study explored the human resource implications of the emerging economic globalism, including the following questions: How is globalism understood by corporations and colleges in the United States? What are the perceived human resource implications of globalism? and What are corporations and colleges doing today to meet these human resource needs and how successful are their efforts? A case-study approach was employed, with site research through individual interviews and group discussions conducted at 16 universities and 16 corporation sites including manufacturing, construction, and business and technical service firms throughout the United States. The study found that the corporate respondents viewed globalism conceptually and operationally. Organizational and operational changes appear to succeed best when they are guided by an institutional understanding of globalism in the conceptual sense. In addition, corporate respondents placed less emphasis on prior foreign language and cross-cultural experience than did the academic respondents. Four categories of human resource needs were suggested by the results of the research: domain knowledge; cognitive, social, and personal skills; prior work experience and on-the-job training; and cross-cultural competence. Corporate respondents are looking beyond the U.S. job market for candidates, sending new signals to schools, conducting more in-house training, updating models for international careers, and strengthening ties with academic institutions. Colleges are making curricular and extracurricular changes, encouraging faculty development but not hiring faculty with international expertise since many are not hiring at all, and developing many cooperative ventures with colleges in other countries and with businesses. Further changes in these directions are needed to meet the demands of globalism. (Contains 118 references.) (KC)

The National Service (NS) program links financial assistance for education to community service. Four issues of primary concern arise as policymakers and program planners move from the program's concept to the fine points of its design and implementation: (1) achieving balance among the program's conflicting goals; (2) expanding educational opportunities; (3) matching community needs to participants' skills and interests; and (4) avoiding conflict with existing activities and programs. These major issues suggest evaluation tasks, including determining how program goals drive program planning; comparing priorities assigned to NS goals over time and across service agencies, educational institutions, and government agencies; describing how program administrators define "civic responsibility"; tracking characteristics of NS applicants and participants; tracking the proportion of precollege NS participants who use their educational vouchers; assessing the fit between agency needs and participants' skills and interests; measuring and tracking participant attrition; assessing the cost effectiveness of various approaches to training for NS participants; describing how teachers, police, and other service professionals integrate NS workers into the workplace; determining the effects of NS on agency staffing and number and types of new service jobs; and tracking applications to and participation in other service programs. (Contains 22 endnotes.) (YLB)

This study explored the range of service program approaches to promote college attendance, described typical programs, and reviewed issues related to program evaluation. A reputational sample of programs was obtained through interviews with 5 national higher-education organizations and 10 state departments of education, and through a literature review. Phone interviews were conducted with 24 program officers to gather information about how programs were established and their operation, funding, and assessment. The analysis found that programs are typically designed to address a number of factors negatively associated with attending college, including low income, low level of parent education, minority race and ethnicity, lack of college aspirations, poor academic achievement, and lack of information about college costs and financial aid. Most target low-income and/or minority students. Programs usually have a primary focus, such as increasing knowledge about college and financial options, promoting awareness of attending college, or fostering persistence once in college. Activities include cultural enrichment (events, mentors, summer and after-school programs); academic enrichment; educational and financial counseling; and financial incentives. The study also found that little is known about program effectiveness as evaluations are rare and usually focus on process measures. Contains program descriptions and 18 references. (JB)

The key dimensions of issues related to the integration of successive waves of immigrants are outlined. It is argued that a federal immigrant policy is needed, in which the Federal Government would assume some of the cost burden of public services to immigrants that states and localities now shoulder by themselves. Requiring the Federal Government to internalize the costs of its choices should assure that the trade-offs made serve the broader national interest. These objectives could be accomplished by turning over targeted federal funds to the local institutions that are most affected by the influx of immigrants and their children. These are primarily educational institutions, ranging from early childhood to adult education. General assistance should also be provided to partially compensate localities for costs they incur providing social and health services. The Federal Government should also standardize the requirements for existing federal, social, and other entitlement programs for immigrants. Developing these policy options cannot be done in an information vacuum. Systematic information is needed about the needs and wants of immigrants and service providers. Two figures and five tables illustrate the analysis. (Contains 25 references.) (SLD)

A study was done of the Lilly Endowment Educational Awards (LEEAs), one type of gift-aid for fulltime undergraduate Indiana residents. In particular the study addressed: (1) who receives LEEAs; (2) how Pell, State of Indiana, and LEEA formulas interact; (3) what happens when LEEAs are combined with all of the other types of gift-aid for a total package; and (4) whether the LEEA program increases college participation, affects school choice, or reduces loan burden. Most of the analysis relied on two data sources: the State Student Assistance Commission of Indiana and the State of Indiana Commission for Higher Education Student Information System. The study found that recipients of Pell and state awards come from families whose income level is well below the median for the state. LEEA recipients tend to come from families whose income is near the median. All three gift-aid formulas interact with each other and with external factors, and in ways that are often not immediately obvious. Due to the common practice of "equity packaging," LEEA and state awards may be viewed as block grants to a school's general scholarship fund. The major effect of the program was reduction of student loan burden. Extensive tables and technical appendixes are included. (Contains 71 references.) (JB)

Patterns of military service, college enrollment, and civilian labor force participation among recent high school graduates and dropouts were examined. The activities that young people pursued after high school were disparate and dependent upon a multitude of factors. The supply of entry-level workers did not keep pace with the demand for technicians, skilled craftsmen, and college-trained workers. Although the flow of high school graduates and dropouts into education and the labor force were matters of national concern, the educational and vocational activities that young people pursued were poorly tracked. According to estimates for 1986, the high school graduation rate was almost exactly the same as it was in 1976 and 1965. The composition of the high school graduating classes changed to reflect greater minority representation. Activity patterns during the first year after leaving school remained remarkably stable since the early 1970s, with some increases in both college enrollment and military enlistment rates in the early 1980s. Analyses of postsecondary activities during the rest of the 5-year period following high school revealed considerable turbulence in activity patterns, much of it into and out of short-term civilian jobs. For college entrants, progress toward degree completion was notably sporadic and drawn out. (Appendixes include 55 references and information on estimating numbers of high school graduates and on the database.) (YLB)

This report attempts to resolve disagreements about trends in minority enrollments in postsecondary education institutions and to examine various factors that might help explain the enrollment trends. Among the study's findings were the following: (1) in the total group of individuals, aged 18-24, the overall enrollment rate of blacks has changed little since the mid-1970s; (2) the proportion of black high school graduates, aged 18-24, that is enrolled in college has declined substantially from a peak of nearly 33 percent in the mid-1970s; and (3) the enrollment rate of Hispanic youth has been stable since the late 1970s, though it remains lower than during the peak years of the mid-1970s. Possible factors causing the enrollment trends, such as military enlistments and family income differences, are analyzed. Data sources (the Current Population Survey and the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System) are described in an appendix. Includes 51 references. (JDD)

This report presents proposed standards for teaching internship programs. The internship standards are intended to be embedded in a state's teacher licensing system. The year-long (paid) internship is simultaneously the last year of formal teacher preparation, the first year of (supervised) teaching, and one requirement for the unrestricted teaching license. An intern would have to satisfactorily complete the internship before taking the final examination to receive a teaching license. The report is intended to provide guidance to teaching standards boards as well as colleges of education, school districts, and others concerned with improving the practical preparation of teachers. The discussion is presented in four sections: (1) "The Case for a Supervised Teaching Internship"; (2) "Internships in the Licensed Professions"; (3) "Standards for an Internship Program"; and (4) "Implementing the Internship: The Value of Clinical Schools." The appendices provide examples of evaluation forms; an extract from "Minnesota's Vision for Teacher Education: Stronger Standards, New Partnerships"; the Code of Ethics for Minnesota Teachers; and detailed descriptions of internship programs in four licensed professions--engineering, psychology, architecture, and medicine. A bibliography completes the volume. (JD)

A prototype model was developed to estimate the effect of various variables on the internal rate of return to starting college. The model arose out of observations that there is a nonlinear relationship between education and earnings, that many students who begin college never finish, that there are large differences across fields of specialization in the earnings differential between college and high school graduates, and that many high school and family background characteristics appear to affect earnings. The model was then applied to data from the National Longitudinal Survey of the High School Class of 1972. Results found that black males have a lower rate of return on one year of college than white males (5.4 percent versus 5.9 percent) which appears, however, to be due not to race but to other characteristics. Females also had a lower rate of return than men. It was noted that none of these differences are explained by differences in the observed characteristics of males and females. Other research using this model has shown a higher return on college attendance for women over men. It is suggested that further research and refinement of the model is necessary before strong conclusions can be developed. The study includes one table displaying results and nine references. (JB)

This report reviews research on the relationship between educational practices and policies and the low rates of participation of women, minorities, and disabled persons in science related careers. The information presented is designed to contribute to the discussion of how schools might create conditions that will help underrepresented groups prepare for careers in science and mathematics. The report has two central messages, there is much that is not understood about the low participation rates of these groups and what is known suggests that there are alterable features of schools that appear to constrain participation. The document discussed the following issues: (1) the current status and policy concerns involved in this issue; (2) the scientific pipeline; (3) cognitive and attitudinal factors; (4) school factors; (5) societal factors; (6) intervention strategies; and (7) further research. A list of over 200 references is appended. (CW)

Programs developing and supporting partnerships between scientists and elementary and secondary school classrooms have been funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) as well as other federal funding agencies. This document reports on a study exploring the impacts, challenges, and strategies of programs that link science graduate and undergraduate students to K-12 classrooms. Contents include: (1) "Introduction"; (2) "Program Descriptions"; (3) "Outreach Programs: The Perspective from K-12 Classrooms"; (4) "Outreach Programs: The Perspective from Institutions of Higher Education"; and (5) "Summary and Conclusions". The appendix includes "Interview Protocols" and "Program Characteristics". (Contains 35 references.) (Author/YDS)

The Hispanic Scholarship Fund (HSF) set the goal of doubling the rate at which Hispanics earn bachelor's degrees. To gain a better understanding of what this would entail, HSF asked RAND to examine the implications of current trends and the costs and benefits of different approaches toward meeting the goal within 10 years. The study found that a combination of strategies focusing on all levels of education could double the college graduation rate of Hispanics, and that the benefits of achieving this goal would far outweigh the cost of accommodating the increase in school and college enrollment. Even including the extra costs for a range of programs that will be needed to support Hispanic students to continue their education and stay in school, the public would still gain in the form of increased revenues generated over the lifetime of the cohorts of Hispanics that would graduate from college. To estimate the costs of meeting the goal, the study considered three sets of strategies that focused on different levels of the education system: (1) those that targeted middle school and high school students; (2) those that facilitate the transition from high school to college; and (3) those that focus on keeping students in college until they graduate. Doubling the rate at which Hispanics earn bachelor's degrees would mean increases in enrollment of about 2% in U.S. high schools and 8% in colleges. These estimated increases in enrollment would be in addition to a 10% increase required to meet the projected growth of all college students in the next decade. There are two types of costs to be considered: investment needed to expand the capacity of high schools and colleges and investment in programs to help prepare and motivate Hispanic students. Some recommendations are made for achieving these goals. (Contains 22 figures and 31 endnotes.) (SLD)

This report responds to a request for information about the quality of the tests the City University of New York (CUNY) uses to decide who must take remedial courses and a profile of CUNY freshmen. Roughly 65% of CUNY bachelor's degree students and nearly 90% of associate degree students are required to take remedial courses in reading, writing, or mathematics. CUNY uses three tests to determine whether an incoming freshman requires remedial instruction: (1) the Reading Assessment Test (RAT); (2) the Mathematics Assessment Test (MAT); and (3) the Writing Assessment Test (WAT). These tests are collectively referred to as the Freshman Skills Assessment Test (FSAT). Analyses revealed that the RAT and MAT had adequate score reliabilities, but this was not the case with the WAT. There was some empirical support for the construct validity of the RAT and MAT in their correlation with Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) scores, but the three tests in the FSAT had fairly low criterion-related validity coefficients in that they did not do a good job in predicting first-year grades. There was no evidence of racial or ethnic bias in the FSAT scores. Certain combinations of variables were able to predict first-year grade point averages far more accurately than was possible when the same variables were used individually. If CUNY chooses to continue to devote substantial resources to remediation, rather than raising standards for admissions, the process of determining who is to get remedial instruction should be improved. It is also recommended that CUNY require all students to take the SAT to provide an external, independent, and standardized benchmark of student ability. If CUNY decides to raise admissions standards, it should do so on the basis of high school grade point average and SAT, but the university should monitor the effects of any changes in admissions policy carefully. An appendix contains statistical data from the study. (Contains 5 figures, 15 tables, and 8 references.) (SLD)

This study, conducted for the Mayor's Advisory Task Force on the City University of New York (CUNY) in 1998 and 1999, was charged with reviewing and making recommendations regarding: (1) the uses of city funding by CUNY; (2) the effects of open admissions and remedial education on CUNY's capacity to provide high-level college courses; (3) third-party remediation services prior to admission; and (4) implementation of other reform measures as appropriate. Separate chapters of the report provide an historical overview; examine the authority and functions of the Regents of the University of the State of New York; examine the composition and responsibilities of the CUNY Board of Trustees and its central decision-making functions; examine the structure of the university colleges, collegiate independence, and the failure of university-wide academic planning; and examine the college governance structure. A concluding section sets forth recommended reforms, including: the need for central leadership combined with local autonomy, with each college accountable for its outcomes; the need for consensus at the top levels of university governance; and clarification of the relationship between the board and elected officials, with elected officials playing a significant role in the definition of the institution's mission and structure. A section on methodology is appended. (Contains 60 references.) (CH)

The armed services prefer to recruit high quality youth because they perform better and have lower attrition rates. Yet competition for this group is increasing because of fundamental changes in the civilian opportunities that these youth face. One of the most dramatic changes is the enormous increase in the relative returns from attending college that have occurred over the last 20 years. This report summarizes the findings of the first year of a 2-year project that seeks to provide input necessary for the development and expansion of programs intended to improve the services' ability to compete against post-secondary institutions and subsequent civilian skilled employment. Specifically, the report examines trends in college attendance and the economic returns from attending college, describes the options that the military currently offers to combine service and college, and enumerates the types of issues that would need to be considered in developing and expanding recruiting programs that target college-bound youth. The report should be of interest to those concerned about military recruiting as well as to the larger defense manpower research community. (Contains 33 references.) (YLB)

This report presents evaluation results of the Learn and Serve America, Higher Education (LSAHE) federal initiative. The report addresses the impact of LSAHE on students, communities, and higher education institutions, and is based on data collection and observation from fiscal 1995 through fiscal 1997. The broad goals of LSAHE are to: engage students in meeting the unmet needs of communities while enhancing their own academic learning, their sense of social responsibility, and their civic skills through service-learning. Evaluation involved 300 institutions each year that responded to an accomplishments survey, a community impact survey, and a student survey. Site visits and analysis of secondary data were also conducted. The evaluation concluded that LSAHE was a critical catalyst on many campuses for the initiation, growth, and enhancement of service-learning programs and courses. Evaluation results are detailed for five areas: (1) the work that LSAHE programs performed; (2) the impact of LSAHE participation on service providers; (3) the impact of the work performed by LSAHE programs on service recipients; (4) the institutional impact of LSAHE; and (5) the return on the LSAHE investment. Recommendations urge goal clarification, encouragement of more direct service, and specification of "good practices" in service-learning. (DB)

The effects of evolving federal research policies and programs on nongovernmental academic medical centers are examined. Medical schools, teaching hospitals, and research institutes are included. The major problem of analysis in this report is to sort out the effects of federally-supported biomedical research from other influences on academic medical centers. The analysis addresses the question of the status of the academic medical community on a number of levels. It examines how centers appear to have adjusted their educational programs, their organizational structures, their scientific activity, and their budgets as a result of their involvement in federal biomedical research. The measurable effects of federal research on the educational programs of centers appear to be limited largely to those components most involved in research. In general, the academic medical community is responsive to the influence of federal biomedical research programs. The analysis reported here confirms the interdependence between the federal agencies that sponsor research and the academic institutions performing it. Important characteristics of academic medical centers--Ph.D. programs, faculty size, budgets, and scientific activity--are directly related to the federal funding received by individual departments; and overall financial stability is often substantially affected by the stability of federal research funding. (Author/LBH)

The effects of federal funds upon the viability of selected biomedical and behavioral disciplines were studied based on multivariate analyses of a longitudinal data base, supplemented by case study field trips to nine carefully selected universities. In the quantitative analyses, models were constructed to predict several indices of academic department structure and function; e.g., Ph.D. production, graduate enrollment, and department size, which were postulated to be linked in a recursive model. The degree to which the federal funding effect varied as a function of the kind of institution was also examined. The key finding was that federal funding has a clear, strong, and positive relationship to department and structure, and that this holds true even when other factors in the model are taken into account. The detailed results are presented in numerous statistical tables. (Author/LBH)

To increase the supply of doctors, the government has become directly involved in physician education. Of the $673 million appropriated for health manpower programs in 1972, 55% was for medical schools. Legislation to date has emphasized expansion of medical education output in the aggregate, but increasing attention has been directed to the composition of the output with regard to the type and location of practice and to the equality of educational opportunity for ethnic minorities and women. This paper examines changes that have occurred in the medical education system concurrently with the growth of Federal programs designed to influence that system's output. The data indicate that the system has responded very favorably. Capacity is expanding rapidly, discrimination against women has apparently disappeared, medical schools are seeking out and admitting qualified individuals from minority groups, and financial barriers to medical education have been lowered. (MJM)

Health Manpower Legislation and related research aspects are the topics of this report. The program of the Comprehensive Health Manpower Training Act of 1971 played a major role in the medical school enrollment expansion that occurred between 1971 and 1973. Medical school admissions decisions have been responsible to federal policy objectives and broader social concerns regarding equality of access for women and minorities. Primary care physicians need and are choosing speciality training, whether in family medicine or one of the more traditional specialities of internal medicine, pediatrics, or obstetrics-gynecology. Although public schools and private schools have increased real tuition levels during the past decade, the spread between the two has increased. The strong technical interdependencies among patient care, research, and education in academic health centers mean that there are strong interdependencies between federal decisions in the health manpower field and federal decisions in other health care areas. Greater reliance on clinical faculty earnings for institution support will require that clinical care in teaching hospitals be oriented more toward secondary and tertiary than toward primary care. Government proposals for the use of special projects to promote primary care may compensate for the financial problems associated with primary care training as well as for those created by cutbacks in general institutional support. (Author/PG)

Discussion of higher education policy has been hampered in the past by an inability to forecast the effects on student behavior of proposed policies. This report describes efforts to develop a theoretical and empirical model of student behavior that will help to establish a method of forecasting enrollment patterns. In this model, actual college enrollments are the result of decisions made both by college administrators and by prospective students. The administrators determine feasible alternatives for students, who then select the "best" college. If this best alternative is more attractive than the various possibilities other than college, enrollment follows. In this report, the student's decision problem is separated into successive stages. Formally, at each stage of the student's decision problem, he or she maximizes a utility function defined over the relevant alternatives. The results show that a utility-maximizing view of student behavior offers a useful perspective on enrollments. Results also indicated that price--both tuition and room and board charges--had a lower effect on the decisions of students from higher-income families. Also the effect of parental education on college-going behavior declines with increasing family income. After presenting the estimation results, the potential use of the model for forecasting enrollment patterns is illustrated. (Author/PG)

Examined are methodologies for modeling students' choices among higher education institutions. A statistical technique called "conditional logit analysis" is applicable to the problem studied. These applications are reviewed and certain weaknesses inherent in the approach are pointed out. Alternative approaches are offered, based on the use of Bayes' Theorum, which is easier to use, more flexible, and less expensive to apply. In empirical tests, it is also observed to have greater predictive power than conditional logit analysis. (Author)

Out of a factual description of the national demographic and economic context of higher education in general the authors offer interpretations for community colleges emphasizing three trends significant to educational planners: (1) Demographic pressure that made for increased enrollments in the past will dissipate at the traditional college-going age range, but continue at the somewhat older ages, when people are commonly drawn back to higher education, especially to community colleges; (2) since the present oversupply of college-educated persons is likely to persist for more than a few years, it is likely that the gap between the expected lifetime earnings of college and high school graduates will continue to narrow; and (3) in light of the high and rapidly rising costs associated with college attendance, it is reasonable to anticipate continued low rates of college enrollment compared with the late 1960's and, possibly, futher decline in these rates. (Author/JT)

The paper discusses a study which was conducted to identify and analyze attitudes of young lawyers towards legal specialization and relicensing of lawyers. A sample of 1485 readers of "Barrister Magazine" participated in the study. Lawyers responding to the survey valued specialization both as a means for providing better legal services and as an attractive feature for lawyers. With regard to the structure of specialization programs, responding lawyers showed a strong preference for programs of certification rather than self-designation. Most responding lawyers would require attendance at continuing legal education courses and some form of screening process to determine which lawyers should be recognized as specialists. Despite general support for specialization programs, nonspecialists, new lawyers, and lawyers practicing in small offices indicated concern that specialization programs would adversely affect their own practice. The questionnaire responses also showed strong support for relicensing programs and for mandatory continuing education courses as an appropriate vehicle for improving the quality of legal practice. Survey questions and their results by specialty status, location, length of practice, and size of office are presented and discussed in tables which conclude the study. (Author/DB)

This report derives from a study of the implementation of civil rights guarantees by elementary, secondary, and higher education institutions. The study was commissioned by the Office of Civil Rights (OCR) with the objective of determining whether the OCR should more closely monitor and enforce compliance with Federal regulations concerning the rights of women, minorities, and the handicapped, or whether these regulations are being adequately addressed through local administration of compliance mechanisms. Under Federal law, local institutions are required to (1) file formal assurance of compliance with guarantees established in Title IX of the Educational Amendments of 1972 and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, (2) conduct a self evaluation of their practices in dealing with the rights of women and the handicapped, (3) appoint a compliance coordinator, and (4) establish formal grievance procedures. Based on case studies of twelve local education agencies and twelve institutions of higher education throughout the country, it was found that (1) nearly all the institutions had implemented the required mechanisms, though few people apart from managerial personnel knew that they existed, and (2) the four mechanisms contribute to the change process, but the most important changes are initiated by institutional leaders or employees. Of the four mechanisms, assurance of compliance was found to be the least effective. Recommendations are offered for improving its usefulness. (Author/GC)

A largely qualitative analysis of the supply and demand for foreign language and international specialists and of the use to which their skills are put in the private and public sectors was undertaken. The investigation was based on a review of the literature in the field and on more than 150 interviews with representatives of four main groups that affect supply and demand for specialists: (1) universities and other training institutions; (2) private business; (3) federal, state, and international agencies; and (4) foundations and other nonprofit organizations. The goal of the study was to provide a President's Commission on Foreign Language and International Studies with a description of the present and expected trends affecting training in these skills and the uses to which they are put with suggestions for future research, and with a discussion, without recommendations, of some of the main policy issues. An interview guide, a list of groups interviewed, a delineation of supply and demand variables used in the study, and a selected bibliography are appended. (SW)

This report documents a series of studies on how undergraduate students learn from and reason with textual information. The studies described were undertaken to produce models that could serve as the basis for designing computer systems capable of structuring and presenting text material in optimal formats. Divided into sections, the report presents five sets of studies evaluating particular processing models and optimization techniques to improve reading comprehension and retention, including the use of schemata in the acquisition and transfer of knowledge, knowledge acquisition from newspaper stories, the integration of knowledge from text, configural effects in memory, and text annotation as a technique for facilitating knowledge integration. The last section of the report discusses ten conclusions, among which are that presenting new information in well-learned structural organizations can facilitate learning that information, that eliminating redundancy and irrelevant commentary from newspaper stories facilitates assimilation and retention of important facts, and that annotating texts with references to related facts that have occurred in previous texts facilitates general inferential reasoning from the texts. (AEA)