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A continuous increase in ambient temperature caused by global warming has been considered a worldwide threat. As sessile organisms, plants have evolved sophisticated heat shock response (HSR) to respond to elevated temperatures and other abiotic stresses, thereby minimizing damage and ensuring the protection of cellular homeostasis. In particular, for perennial trees, HSR is crucial for their long life cycle and development. HSR is a cell stress response that increases the number of chaperones including heat shock proteins (HSPs) to counter the negative effects on proteins caused by heat and other stresses. There are a large number of HSPs in plants, and their expression is directly regulated by a series of heat shock transcription factors (HSFs). Therefore, understanding the detailed molecular mechanisms of woody plants in response to extreme temperature is critical for exploring how woody species will be affected by climate changes. In this review article, we summarize the latest findings of the role of HSFs and HSPs in the HSR of woody species and discuss their regulatory networks and cross talk in HSR. In addition, strategies and programs for future research studies on the functions of HSFs and HSPs in the HSR of woody species are also proposed.

Background: HSF1 is the major eukaryotic transcription factor that regulates expression of HSP genes. Results: We identify two novel HSF1 isoforms and show that HSF1 isoforms differentially regulate chaperone gene transcription. Conclusion: HSF1 isoforms work synergistically, and the ratio of HSF1 isoforms determines chaperone gene transcription levels. Significance: Our findings unravel an additional layer of chaperone gene regulation through modulation of HSP expression by HSF1 isoform ratios., The heat shock response, resulting in the production of heat shock proteins or molecular chaperones, is triggered by elevated temperature and a variety of other stressors. Its master regulator is heat shock transcription factor 1 (HSF1). Heat shock factors generally exist in multiple isoforms. The two known isoforms of HSF1 differ in the inclusion (HSF1α) or exclusion (HSF1β) of exon 11. Although there are some data concerning the differential expression patterns and transcriptional activities of HSF2 isoforms during development, little is known about the distinct properties of the HSF1 isoforms. Here we present evidence for two novel HSF1 isoforms termed HSF1γα and HSF1γβ, and we show that the HSF1 isoform ratio differentially regulates heat shock protein gene transcription. Hsf1γ isoforms are expressed in various mouse tissues and are translated into protein. Furthermore, after heat shock, HSF1γ isoforms are exported from the nucleus more rapidly or degraded more quickly than HSF1α or HSF1β. We also show that each individual HSF1 isoform is sufficient to induce the heat shock response and that expression of combinations of HSF1 isoforms, in particular HSF1α and HSF1β, results in a synergistic enhancement of the transcriptional response. In addition, HSF1γ isoforms potentially suppress the synergistic effect of HSF1α and HSF1β co-expression. Collectively, our observations suggest that the expression of HSF1 isoforms in a specific ratio provides an additional layer in the regulation of heat shock protein gene transcription.

Introduction: High-throughput RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) studies demonstrate that Alter-native Splicing (AS) is a widespread mechanism that enhances transcriptome diversity, particularly in plants exposed to environmental stress. In an attempt to determine the transcriptome and AS patterns of cabbage inbred line “HO” under Heat Stress (HS), RNA-Seq was carried out using HS-treated and con-trol samples. Genome-wide analysis indicated that AS is differentially regulated in response to HS. The number of AS events markedly increased in HS-treated samples compared to the control. Conclusion: We identified 1,864 genes, including Heat shock transcription factor (Hsf) and heat shock protein (Hsp) genes, that exhibited >4-fold changes in expression upon exposure to HS. The enriched Gene Ontology (GO) terms of the 1,864 genes included ‘response to stress/abiotic stimulus/chemical stimulus’, among, which the genes most highly induced by HS encode small Hsps and Hsf proteins. The heat-induced genes also showed an increased number of AS events under HS conditions. In addi-tion, the distribution of AS types was altered under HS conditions, as the level of Intron Retention (IR) decreased, whereas other types of AS increased, under these conditions. Severe HS-induced AS was al-so observed in Hsfs and Hsps, which play crucial roles in regulating heat tolerance. Our results support the notion that AS of HS-related genes, such as HsfA2 and HsfB2a, are important for heat stress adapta-tion in cabbage.

The heat shock response is a universal homeostatic cell autonomous reaction of organisms to cope with adverse environmental conditions. In mammalian cells, this response is mediated by the heat shock transcription factor Hsf1, which is monomeric in unstressed cells and upon activation trimerizes, and binds to promoters of heat shock genes. To understand the basic principle of Hsf1 activation we analyzed temperature-induced alterations in the conformational dynamics of Hsf1 by hydrogen exchange mass spectrometry. We found a temperature-dependent unfolding of Hsf1 in the regulatory region happening concomitant to tighter packing in the trimerization region. The transition to the active DNA binding-competent state occurred highly cooperative and was concentration dependent. Surprisingly, Hsp90, known to inhibit Hsf1 activation, lowered the midpoint temperature of trimerization and reduced cooperativity of the process thus widening the response window. Based on our data we propose a kinetic model of Hsf1 trimerization. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.11576.001, eLife digest Cells cope with excessive heat, toxic compounds and other adverse environmental conditions by triggering an internal repair process called the heat shock response. In mammalian cells, a protein called Hsf1 is activated by stress and regulates the activity of a large set of target genes. These genes code for proteins that help the cell cope with the effects of stress, for example, by repairing or breaking down damaged proteins. Under normal conditions, Hsf1 exists as a single molecule, but when it is activated, three molecules come together to make a complex called a trimer that is able to bind to DNA and activate the target genes. Proteins are made of long chains that then fold into specific three-dimensional shapes. It is not known how Hsf1 is kept in an inactive state in healthy, unstressed cells. One possibility is that the protein folds into a three-dimensional shape that prevents it from being activated. Alternatively, Hsf1 may be bound to other proteins called chaperones that move away when the cell is under stress because they are needed to help the damaged proteins refold into their own three-dimensional shapes. Hentze et al. used a variety of biochemical techniques to study the human Hsf1 protein. The experiments showed that there are two regions of the Hsf1 protein that changed shape dramatically when the temperature increased. A region that regulates the activity of Hsf1 unfolded, while a region involved in making the trimer became more stable. Detailed analysis showed that once the regulatory region unfolded, the protein was able to interact with other Hsf1 units to make the trimer. Therefore, Hsf1 can directly sense and respond to changes in temperature without the aid of any chaperone proteins. Further experiments showed that the formation of Hsf1 trimers and the ability of these trimers to bind to DNA depend upon both the temperature and the amount of Hsf1 present. In addition, a chaperone protein called Hsp90 – which is known to be able to interact with Hsf1 – influenced how Hsf1 responded to changes in temperature. Hentze et al. also present a model for the activation of Hsf1 that allows for flexibility in the response of Hsf1 to changes in temperature. Previous studies have shown that Hsf1 is chemically modified during stress and also while the cell recovers from stressful conditions. Therefore, the next challenge will be to find out how these modifications influence the way in which Hsf1 responds to stress. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.11576.002