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A low carbohydrate and high fat (LCHF) flour was developed by combining almond flour, desiccated coconut flour, defatted soya flour, dry gluten powder, psyllium husk and skimmed milk powder. Determination of rheological, bread making, nutritional, and staling characteristics of LCHF flour in comparison with wheat flour (WF) was studied. The results showed that LCHF flour had lower amylograph pasting temperature (31.6 °C), peak viscosity (200 BU), farinograph dough stability (0.8 min), and bread volume (315 ml) compared to WF (61.0 °C; 782 BU; 8.7 min; and 525 ml) respectively. The use of additive mixes such as fungal alpha-amylase, sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate and xanthan gum, improved the volume and texture of the LCHF bread. Scanning electron microscope images showed little or no presence of starch granules in LCHF dough and bread. Differential scanning calorimetry studies indicated that, during storage (1–5 days), the enthalpy for gelatinization of endotherm starch increased (0.71–3.40 j/g) in WF bread, however, in LCHF bread this increase was lesser (0.53 to 2.2 j/g) indicating slower staling rate in LCHF bread. The LCHF bread showed lower carbohydrate (13.7%), in-vitro starch digestibility (17.3%) and staling rate, higher protein (22.51%), fat (11.01%), and medium-chain fatty acids than WF bread (51.9%; 38.2%; 12.57%; 3.78%) respectively. The results showed that the developed product would be beneficial for people suffering from diabetics and obesity.

The present research sought to experiment the effect of additives such as dry gluten powder (DGP), fungal α-amylase (FAA), sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate (SSL) and their combination (GAS) on the rheological and nutritional profile of bread. The incorporation of varied percentage (0–20%) of stenostylis stenocarpa flour (ssF) into WF(Wheat Flour) was optimized at 15%. The results showed that the incorporation of 15% ssF decreased the farinograph dough stability and extensograph resistance to extension. There was protein matrix disruption in 15% ssF dough contrary to 15% ssF + GAS dough as shown in scanning electron micrograph (SEM). However, the addition of GAS to 15% ssF produced bread with an improved quality score that competed favourably with control bread. The organoleptic evaluation revealed an overall quality score of 52.5, 40 and 49% for control, 15% ssF and 15% ssF + GAS bread respectively. Furthermore, 15% ssF + GAS revealed a higher value of ash, protein, dietary fibre, total phenol contents and IC(50) of DPPH radical scavenging activity in comparison to control bread. Hence, the present study showed that partial replacement of WF with 15% ssF + GAS has a positive effect on the overall sensorial acceptability and nutritional value of bread. GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

Chilli spent residue (CHSR) obtained after oil and oleoresin extraction, is a potential source of dietary fiber (44.4 % total dietary fiber (TDF), 34.9 % insoluble dietary fiber, 9.5 % soluble dietary fiber and protein (19.7 %). The aqueous and methanolic (80 %) extracts of CHSR showed 72 and 63 % antioxidant activity respectively. Inclusion of CHSR at 5–15 % level in bread affected the bread characteristics viz., specific volume, crust color and shape; crumb colour, grain and texture resulting in sensory scores of 60–74 in comparison to the score of 84 for the control bread. However, use of combination of additives (CA) viz.dry gluten powder, fungal α-amylase enzyme and sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate along with 10 % CHSR, improved the dough strength, specific volume, decreased the crumb firmness value and increased the overall quality score of bread. Scanning electron microscopic studies revealed a disruption in the continuity of the protein matrix in bread dough with addition of CHSR above 10 %. Incorporation of CHSR to wheat flour at 10 % level is recommended as it would improve the nutritional quality of bread in terms of increase in dietary fiber, mineral and protein contents.

Black gram grains were fractionated using roller flour mill. Effect of combination of additives (CA) namely dry gluten powder, sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate, fungal α-amylase on the rheological and bread making characteristics of wheat flour partly replaced with roller milled fractions of black gram was studied. With increase in the addition of straight run flour (SRF), protein rich fraction (PRF), protein and fiber rich fraction (P&FRF) from 0 to 20 %, fiber rich fraction, FRF (0–15 %), the farinograph water absorption increased and dough stability decreased; amylograph pasting temperature increased and peak viscosity decreased; bread volume decreased and crumb firmness value increased indicating adverse effect of these fractions on the rheological and bread making characteristics of wheat flour. Sensory evaluation showed that breads were acceptable only up to the level of 15 % for SRF, PRF & P&FRF and 10 % for FRF. However, when CA containing dry gluten powder, sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate and fungal α-amylase was incorporated the overall quality of the products improved. Use of these fractions increased the protein and fiber contents of bread by 1.24–1.66 and 1.48–3.79 times respectively. The results showed that possibility of utilising roller milled black gram fractions along with CA to improve the taste, texture and nutritional quality of bread.

The different roller milled fractions from green gram such as straight run flour (SRF), protein rich fraction (PRF), fiber rich fraction (FRF) and protein and fiber rich fraction (P&FRF) were replaced with wheat flour for the preparation of breads. The Farinograph water absorption increased and dough stability decreased by replacement of SRF, PRF, FRF and P&FRF. The bread volume decreased and crumb firmness value increased showing adverse effect of roller milled green gram fractions on the volume and texture of bread. Sensory evaluation of bread showed that the 15 % substitution of SRF, PRF & P&FRF and 10 % substitution of FRF produced acceptable quality bread. Addition of combination of additives (CA) like dry gluten powder, sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate and fungal α-amylase brought about significant improvement in the dough strength and overall quality of the bread. The results showed that bread with improved nutritional quality and acceptable taste could be produced by adding separately 15 % SRF, PRF, P&FRF and 10 % FRF with CA.

Bran dusters are used in the wheat flour milling process to increase flour extraction rate. Chemical, rheological and bread characteristics of bran duster flours (BDR1, BDR2, BDR3) and straight run flour (SRF) obtained from two commercial roller flour mills were analyzed. Important chemical characteristics such as ash, dry gluten content, sedimentation value, damaged starch and falling number of bran duster flours were determined. Rheological behavior was tested using farinograph and alveograph equipments. The results showed an increase in ash, dry gluten content and Zeleny’s sedimentation value for bran duster flours compared to SRF. Rheological characteristics indicated higher farinograph dough development time and stability values for bran duster flours. Alveograph characteristics indicated higher extensibility and lower elasticity values for bran duster flours. Over all quality score of bread for BDR1 from A and B roller flour mills ranged from 73.4 to 74.7, BDR2 (79–81.8), BDR3 (69–70.4) as against SRF (85.4–86.3).

Effect of replacement of whole-wheat flour with multigrain blend, MGB (chick pea split without husk, barley, soya bean and fenugreek seeds) at 10, 20, 30 and 40 g/100 g on rheological characteristics of whole-wheat flour and quality of north Indian parotta (NIP) making was studied. Use of increasing amount of MGB from 0 to 40 g/100 g increased farinograph water absorption, decreased dough stability, extensograph resistance to extension, extensibility, amylograph peak viscosity and overall quality score of NIP from 53 to 38 for the maximum score of 60. Use of combination of dry gluten powder, sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose separately and in combination significantly improved the overall quality of NIP with 30 g/100 g MGB. Addition of multigrains increased the protein, fat, dietary fiber and mineral contents of north Indian parotta.

Effect of replacement of fat with 25, 50, 75 and 100% sesame oil (on fat basis); 50% sesame oil, hydrocolloids and emulsifiers on the rheological, microstructural, quality characteristics and fatty acid profile of cake was studied. Addition of increasing amount of sesame oil decreased viscosity, increased specific gravity of cake batter; decreased cake volume and overall quality score. Microstructure studies showed disrupted gluten matrix. Among the two different hydrocolloids [hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC) and xanthan] and emulsifiers [glycerol monostearate (GMS) and sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate (SSL)] tried, HPMC and SSL increased the batter viscosity, decreased the specific gravity, increased the volume and overall quality score. Use of combination of HPMC and SSL improved significantly the quality characteristics of cake with 50% sesame oil in such a way that the overall quality score was higher than that of the control cake with fat. The microstructure of cake crumb with 50% sesame oil and HPMC showed a smooth structure with less number of cavities and SSL showed a continuous protein matrix. On replacing the fat with 50% sesame oil, there was a decrease in saturated fatty acids and increase in unsaturated fatty acids, particularly linoleic acid. The fatty acid profile of cake with 50% sesame oil was better than the control cake as there was 2.4 times decrease in palmitic acid content and 5.9 times increase in essential fatty acids (EFA) content.

In order to explore the possibility of using WPC as a functional ingredient in Indian traditional product – South Indian Parotta investigations were made to study the effect of replacement of wheat flour with 5, 10 and 15% WPC on the farinograph, extensograph, amylograph characteristics of wheat flour, quality of parotta and microstructure of baked parotta. The results showed an increase in farinograph stability, extensograph resistance to extension up to 10% WPC and a decrease in the farinograph water absorption, extensograph extensibility, amylograph peak viscosity, cold paste viscosity, breakdown and setback values with an increase in the level of WPC from 0% to 15%. The quality characteristics of parotta showed that the spread ratio decreased and shear force values increased significantly above 5% level. Control parotta and parotta with 5% WPC were soft, possessed thin and transparent layers whereas parottas beyond 5% WPC had thick, fused and opaque layers. The parottas with 5% WPC were rated good. The quality characteristics of parotta were adversely affected beyond 5% level of WPC. The microstructure of the top and middle layer of baked parotta with 5% WPC showed that there was a disruption in the continuity of the gluten matrix.

Studies were carried out to assess the relationship between alveograph characteristics and parotta making quality of wheat flours. Twenty-five commercial wheat flour samples were analysed for their chemical, alveograph and parotta making characteristics. The correlation co-efficient data indicated that among the chemical characteristics of wheat flours, ash content was found to be highly correlated to alveograph index of swelling, G (r = −0.838, P ⩽ 0.001), gluten content and sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) sedimentation value to the maximum over pressure, P (r = 0.951 and r = 0.875, P ⩽ 0.001), and to shear force (r = 0.954 and r = 0.840, P ⩽ 0.001). Among alveograph characteristics, P was highly correlated to shear force of parrotta (r = 0.938, P ⩽ 0.001). Average abscissa at rupture, L to spread ratio (r = 0.754, P ⩽ 0.001). Curve configuration ratio, P/L to all the physical and sensory characteristics of parotta at 1% level. G is correlated to spread ratio (r = 0.914, P ⩽ 0.001), texture (r = 0.928, P ⩽ 0.001), layers (r = 0.934, P ⩽ 0.001) and overall quality score (r = 0.931, P ⩽ 0.001). Deformation energy of dough, W is correlated to spread ratio (r = 0.825, P ⩽ 0.001), texture (r = 0.892, P ⩽ 0.001), layers (r = 0.901, P ⩽ 0.001) and overall quality score (r = 0.872, P ⩽ 0.001) indicating that alveograph G and W values could be considered as the indicators of the overall quality of parotta.

This study investigated the effects on the rheological characteristics of dough and quality of parotta (a traditional South Indian unleavened flat bread) of oxidizing agents (potassium bromate, 20 and 40 ppm; ascorbic acid, 100 and 200 ppm; and potassium iodate, 20 and 40 ppm), reducing agents (potassium metabisulfite, 100 and 200 ppm; and cysteine hydrochloride, 50 and 100 ppm), enzymes (fungal alpha-amylase, 10 and 20 ppm; and proteinase, 10 and 20 ppm) and dry gluten powder (1, 2 and 3%). Addition of oxidizing agents and dry gluten increased values for farinograph stability, extensograph and mixograph areas, apparent biaxial extensional viscosity, compressive stress, hardness and cohesiveness, while reducing agents and enzymes decreased the aforementioned characteristics and increased the force decay parameter and adhesiveness of the dough. Among the additives studied, incorporation of 100 ppm potassium metabisulfite, 50 ppm cysteine hydrochloride and 10 ppm proteinase increased the overall quality score for parotta.

The effects of various additives [xylanase (0.06, 0.012, and 0.018%), gluten (1.5 and 3.0%), ascorbic acid (0.01 and 0.02%), glycerol monostearate, sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate (SSL) (0.25, 0.50%) and glucose oxidase (0.1%)] on the quality of vermicelli made from Triticum aestivum was studied. The results revealed that xylanase at 0.012% produced an improved quality product in terms of increase in cooked weight, expansion in volume of strands, and firm texture without stickiness. The micrograph of vermicelli exhibited a uniform, continuous protein matrix. The yellow index values improved with addition of gluten (3%) and ascorbic acid (0.01%). The gluten added appeared as a prominent strong network in micrographs, imparting strength to the vermicelli as evidenced by higher shear values. SSL (0.5%) gave a firm, discrete product and the protein fibrils displayed a massive network, owing to the strengthening effect. At the level of glucose oxidase used (0.1%), it exerted an adverse effect on the product quality. In general, the additives lowered the cooking loss and the leaching of solids in vermicelli when compared to the control.

Enzymes are used in the baking and milling industries to control dough properties and improve the quality of finished products. The role of enzymes in the baking process of an unleavened Indian flat bread, namely South Indian parotta, was studied. In this connection, comparisons have been made on the effects of different enzymes such as fungal α-amylase (FA), glucose oxidase (GO), proteinase and xylanase on rheological characteristics and microstructure of parotta dough and its relation to the overall quality characteristics of baked parotta. Addition of GO increased, while FA, xylanase and proteinase decreased farinograph stability. Extensograph resistance to extension increased with GO or xylanase and decreased with FA or proteinase. The extensibility increased with FA, xylanase or proteinase and decreased with GO. The microstructure of parotta dough with different enzymes revealed that the use of proteinase improved the continuous gluten formation compared with the control and the other three enzymes, FA, xylanase and GO. This could be due to the proteinase enzyme breaking larger protein fibrils into smaller fibrils and thus enhancing the continuous gluten film formation. A similar observation was also noted in themicrostructure of baked parotta layers. The microstructure of parotta with proteinase enzyme showed a continuous network of protein films compared with a cluster of protein films in parotta with GO. In the case of xylanase-treated parotta, the starch granules were deformed completely and these deformed starch granules were found sticking to the protein films. In parottas prepared with GO and FA, only a few starch granules with faint outlines were visible. Generally speaking, the overall quality score of parotta decreased to 68 and 64 with the use of FA and, GO respectively, as against the control parotta score of 74. The score increased to 92 and 82 with the addition of proteinase and xylanase, respectively.

Chemical, rheological and parotta-making characteristics of wheat-milling flour streams were studied with the main aim of developing a speciality flour for parotta. Important quality characteristics such as ash, flour colour, dry gluten content, sedimentation value, free and bound lipid content, farinograph and alveograph characteristics of the mill streams were determined. The studies showed an increase in ash, gluten content and sedimentation value with increasing numbers of breaks in the flour streams. An increase in percentage whiteness and bound lipids was observed in the first five reduction passages (C1 to C5). The alveograph characteristics indicated that the average abscissa at rupture (L) length of the curve increased with increasing reduction streams from C1 to C5, and also that the curves were better balanced when compared to 1 BK to 5 BK. The parottas made from the first five break passages had a decreased spread ratio, dull brown colour, and fused layers and lower overall quality score (43–79). The initial reduction streams (C1 to C5) produced good quality parottas in terms of appearance, spread, layers and texture. The shear force values indicating the texture of the product ranged from 1,120 to 1,250 g. The speciality flour made by combining C1 to C5 streams had 0.45% ash, 9.63% dry gluten, 45 ml sodium dodecyl sulphate sedimentation value, 0.7% free lipid and 1.8% bound lipid and produced parottas having creamish white colour, excellent pliability, thin, transparent and distinct layers, soft texture and moderate chewiness. In the mouth the parottas broke down easily, without leaving any residue. The overall quality score of parotta was highest (93.5) for the speciality flour when compared to break and reduction streams (43–77 and 56–92 respectively).

The effect of 5, 7.5 and 10 % protein concentrates namely soya protein isolate (SPI), whey protein concentrate (WPC) and addition of 0.5 % emulsifiers such as glycerol monostearate (GMS), sodium stearoyl- 2- lactylate (SSL) and lecithin (LEC) on the rheological, sensory and textural characteristics of cookies with rice flour and its immunochemical validation was studied. The results showed that the use of 7.5 % SPI/WPC along with GMS significantly improved the quality characteristics of cookies with rice flour. Dot-Blot and Western-blot studies of cookies with 7.5 % of SPI or WPC confirmed that the anti-gliadin did not recognize these proteins. Carry- through process using ELISA kit confirmed that gluten was within the permissible limit in all the stages of processing and hence these cookies can be consumed by people suffering from celiac disease.

Six flours differing in quality were analysed for their chemical and rheological parameters. South Indian parottas were prepared and evaluated for their textural characteristics using an Instron universal testing machine (UTM) and their sensory characteristics by a trained panel. The correlation coefficient data indicated that among the chemical characteristics of flours, dry gluten, protein and SDS sedimentation value were found to be the best indices in predicting the quality of parotta. The rheological characteristics, such as farinograph water absorption, extensograph ratio figure and area, and Instron apparent biaxial extensional viscosity (ABEV), hardness and cohesiveness were found to be highly correlated to the overall quality score of parotta. Sensory texture of parotta was found to be highly correlated to shear force as well as compression force (r=0.99, P less than or equal to 0.001) indicating that shear and compression forces could be considered as the best indices of sensory texture of parotta.

Publisher Summary South Indian parotta is wheat flour-based circular, unleavened, multilayered flat bread. It is one of the staple food items in the southern states of India. Parotta is made from wheat flour, salt, water, and oil for spreading of the dough; however, optional ingredients such as sugar and egg are also used in the preparation of parotta. A parotta with creamish white color, having light brown spots on the surface, a circular shape, a soft and pliable handfeel, a soft and slightly chewy texture, with distinct layers, optimum oiliness, easy breakdown in the mouth, and typical pleasant taste and aroma is considered to be highly desirable. Protein quantity and quality are the best indices for predicting the quality of parotta. Alveograph index of swelling and deformation energy of dough are considered to be indicators of the overall quality of parotta. Use of additives such as L-cysteine hydrochloride, proteinase, xylanase, sodium stearoyl-2- lactylate, and guar gum separately modifies the rheological properties of the dough and improves the overall quality of parotta.