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Previous reports have confirmed that crude saponins (ginsenosides) in Panax ginseng have a preventive effect on chemotherapy-induced intestinal injury. However, the protective effects and possible mechanisms of ginsenoside Re (G-Re, a maker saponin in ginseng) against chemotherapy-induced intestinal damage have not been thoroughly studied. In this work, a series of experiments in vivo and in vitro on the intestinal toxicity caused by cisplatin have been designed to verify the improvement effect of G-Re, focusing on the levels of Wnt3a and β -catenin. Mice were intragastric with G-Re for 10 days, and intestinal injury was induced by intraperitoneal administration of cisplatin at a dose of 20 mg/kg. Histopathology, gastrointestinal digestive enzyme activities, inflammatory cytokines, and oxidative status were evaluated to investigate the protective effect. Furthermore, in IEC-6 cells, G-Re statistically reverses cisplatin-induced oxidative damage and cytotoxicity. The TUNEL and Hoechst 33258 staining demonstrated that G-Re possesses protective effects in cisplatin-induced apoptosis. Additionally, pretreatment with G-Re significantly alleviated the apoptosis via inhibition of over-expressions of B-associated X (Bax), as well as the caspase family members, such as caspase 3 and 9, respectively, in vivo and in vitro. Notably, western blotting results showed that G-Re treatment decreased Wnt3a, Glycogen synthase kinase 3 β (GSK- 3 β), and β -catenin expression, suggesting that nuclear accumulation of β -catenin was attenuated, thereby inhibiting the activation of GSK- 3 β -dependent Wnt/ β -catenin signaling, which was consistent with our expected results. Therefore, the above evidence suggested that G-Re may be a candidate drug for the treatment of intestinal injury. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ginsenoside Re is a protopanaxatriol-type saponin extracted from the berry, leaf, stem, flower bud, and root of Panax ginseng. In recent years, ginsenoside Re (Re) has been attracting attention as a dietary phytochemical. In this review, studies on Re were compiled by searching a combination of keywords, namely "pharmacology," "pharmacokinetics," and "toxicology," in the Google Scholar, NCBI, PubMed, and Web of Science databases. The aim of this review was to provide an exhaustive overview of the pharmacological activities, pharmacokinetics, and toxicity of Re, focusing on clinical evidence that has shown effectiveness in specific diseases, such as diabetes mellitus, nervous system diseases, inflammation, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. Re is also known to eliminate virus, enhance the immune response, improve osteoporosis, improve skin barrier function, enhance intracellular anti-oxidant actions, regulate cholesterol metabolism, alleviate allergic responses, increase sperm motility, reduce erectile dysfunction, promote cyclic growth of hair follicles, and reduce gastrointestinal motility dysfunction. Furthermore, this review provides data on pharmacokinetic parameters and toxicological factors to examine the safety profile of Re. Such data will provide a theoretical basis and reference for Re-related studies and future applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examined the effect of ginsenoside Re (G-Re) on autophagy in H9c2 cardiomyocytes cultured in glucose deprivation (GD). Levels of the membrane-bound autophagy-related microtubule-associated protein 1A/1B-light chain 3 (LC3) B-2 were measured via immunoblotting and immunofluorescence was conducted to assess autophagosome formation. GD H9c2 cells were treated with 100 μmol/l G-Re. Cell viability was determined in culture medium. Phosphorylated 5′ AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)-α and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) levels were measured to explore the mechanisms underlying the effects of G-Re on autophagy in GD cells. G-Re treatment inhibited autophagosome formation and may be beneficial to GD cardiomyocytes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Panax ginseng , also known as Korean ginseng, is a traditional remedy widely used in Asian countries. Its major active compounds are ginsenosides, specifically triterpenoid saponins. Among them, one notable ginsenoside called Re has shown various biological effects, including anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory properties. However, the potential beneficial effects of Re on melanogenesis and skin cancer remain poorly understood. To investigate this, we conducted a comprehensive study using biochemical assays, cell-based models, a zebrafish pigment formation model, and a tumor xenograft model. Our results revealed that Re effectively inhibited melanin biosynthesis in a dose-dependent manner by competitively inhibiting the activity of tyrosinase, an enzyme involved in melanin production. Moreover, Re significantly reduced the mRNA expression levels of microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF), a key regulator of melanin biosynthesis and melanoma growth. Furthermore, Re decreased the protein expression of MITF and its target genes, including tyrosinase, TRP-1, and TRP-2, through a partially ubiquitin-dependent proteasomal degradation mechanism, mediated by the AKT and ERK signaling pathways. These findings indicate that Re exerts its hypopigmentary effects by directly inhibiting tyrosinase activity and suppressing its expression via MITF. Additionally, Re demonstrated inhibitory effects on skin melanoma growth and induced tumor vascular normalization in our in vivo experiments. This study represents the first evidence of Re-mediated inhibition of melanogenesis and skin melanoma, shedding light on the underlying mechanisms. These promising preclinical findings warrant further investigation to determine the suitability of Re as a natural agent for treating hyperpigmentation disorders and skin cancer. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ginsenosides, the major bio-active ingredients included in Panax ginseng , have been known for the hair growth activity and used to treat patients who suffer from hair loss; however, the detailed mechanisms of this action are still largely unknown. This study was conducted to investigate the molecular and cellular mechanisms responsible for hair growth promoting effect of ginsenoside Re (GRe) in vitro and in vivo . Different doses of minoxidil and GRe were administered topically to the back regions of nude mice for up to 45 days, and hair shaft length and hair cycles were determined for hair promoting activities. Topical treatment of GRe significantly increased the hair shaft length and hair existent time, which was comparable to the action of minoxidil. We also demonstrated that GRe stimulated hair shaft elongation in the ex vivo cultures of vibrissa hair follicles isolated from C57BL/6 mouse. Systemic transcriptome analysis by next generation sequencing demonstrated that TGF-β-pathway related genes were selectively down-regulated by treatment of GRe in vivo , and the same treatment suppressed TGF-β-induced phosphorylation of ERK in HeLa cells. The results clearly indicated that GRe is the effective constituent in the ginseng on hair promotion via selective inhibition of the hair growth phase transition related signaling pathways, TGF-β signaling cascades. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The inactivated rabies virus vaccine (RV) is a relatively expensive vaccine, prone to failure in some cases. Ginsenoside Re (Re) is a saponin isolated from Panax ginseng, and has an adjuvant property. Here the adjuvant effect of Re to improve the immune response to the RV is evaluated in mice. ICR mice were immunized with saline, 2.50mg/kg Re, 20μl RV, 100μl RV, or 20μl of RV adjuvanted with Re (1.25, 2.50 or 5.00mg/kg). Different time points after boosting, we measured serum antibodies in blood samples and separated splenocytes to detect lymphocyte proliferation and the production of IL-4, IL-10, IL-12, and IFN-γ in vitro. We also compared immunizations containing 20μl RV and 20μl RV adjuvanted with Re (5.00mg/kg) for the expression of CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell subsets at different time points. Results indicated that co-administration of Re significantly enhanced serum antibody titers, increased the CD4+:CD8+ ratio, and enhanced both proliferation responses and IL-4, IL-10, IL-12 and IFN-γ secretions. Both Th1 and Th2 immune responses were activated. The supplementation of the Re (5.00mg/kg) to 20μl of RV significantly amplified serum antibody responses and Th1/Th2 responses inducing similar protection as did 100μl of RV. This suggests that Re could be used to reduce the dose, and therefore the cost, of the RV to achieve the same effective protection. Re merits further studies for use with vaccines of mixed Th1/Th2 immune responses. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Ethnopharmacological relevance: Panax ginseng is a well-known traditional Chinese medicine and has been used for treatment of various diseases for more than four thousand years in Asia. Ginseng saponins or ginsenosides, the active constituents are reported to possess antidiabetic activity, but their antihyperglycemic mechanisms are not fully elucidated. In the present study, the mechanisms of action of ginsenoside Re were investigated in vitro models. Materials and methods: 3T3-L1 cells were chosen as the model to investigate the molecular mechanisms of action of ginsenoside Re. Influence of ginsenoside Re on the adipogenesis was examined by determining TG levels in 3T3-L1 adipocytes by the method of TG oxidation enzyme. Glucose uptake in 3T3-L1 cells stimulated by insulin in the absence or presence of ginsenoside Re were quantified by measuring 3H-2-deoxy-d-glucose levels. Cytokine proteins released into the medium including adiponectin and TNF-α were tested using respective ELISA kits. In addition, real time RT-PCR was conducted to investigate the expression changes of PPAR-γ and its responsive genes, ap2, adiponectin, IRS-1, GLUT4 and TNF-α. And western blot analysis was performed to determine the translocation of GLUT4. Finally, effects of ginsenoside Re on NO production in 3T3-L1 adipocytes and in macrophages were investigated through measurement of nitrite concentration by Griess reagent. Results: Ginsenoside Re induced adipogenesis of 3T3-L1 adipocytes by accumulating TG, increased glucose uptake and up-regulated PPAR-γ2, IRS-1, ap2 and adiponectin genes expressions. Meanwhile, Re also increased production and release of adiponectin. Although having no effects on GLUT4 gene expression, Re facilitated GLUT4 protein translocation to the membranes. In addition, Re inhibited the expression and release of TNF-α. Finally, Re did not show inhibitory effects on NO production both in 3T3-L1 cells stimulated by LPS, TNF-α and IFN-γ and in LPS-stimulated mouse peritoneal macrophages. Conclusions: Ginsenoside Re exhibited the action of reducing insulin resistance through activation of PPAR-γ pathway by directly increasing the expressions of PPAR-γ2 and its responsive genes, adiponectin, IRS-1, ap2, inhibiting TNF-α production and facilitating the translocation of GLUT4 to promote glucose uptake and disposal in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Ethnopharmacological relevance: Ginseng has been widely used for hundreds of years in both China and other countries. It is well accepted that the pharmacological effects of ginseng are attributed to ginsenosides. Ginsenoside Re is one of the active ingredients in ginseng. The present study was carried out to characterize the toxicity of ginsenoside Re after repeated oral administration in Sprague-Dawley rats. Materials and methods: Rats (60 males, 60 females) were administrated ginsenoside Re orally in 0, 38, 113, or 375mg/kg/day doses for 26 weeks (n=15/group each sex). Clinical signs, mortality, body weights, feed consumption, urinalysis, hematology, serum biochemistry, gross findings, organ weights and histopathology were examined at the end of the test period, as well as after the 4-week recovery period. Results: Ginsenoside Re did not induce death, adverse effects or dose-dependent changes in feed consumption, or body weight gain. Some statistically significant differences were observed in hematological and biochemical parameters, as well as in body weights of rats treated with ginsenoside Re. However, there was no abnormality of any organs noted in both gross and histopathological examinations. Conclusions: Ginsenoside Re is well tolerated up to a 375mg/kg/day oral dosage level and non-toxic in both male and female rats. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Ginsenosides are the bioactive constituents of ginseng, a key herb in traditional Chinese medicine. As a single component of ginseng, ginsenoside Re (G-Re) belongs to the panaxatriol group. Many reports demonstrated that G-Re possesses the multifaceted beneficial pharmacological effects on cardiovascular system. G-Re has negative effect on cardiac contractility and autorhythmicity. It causes alternations in cardiac electrophysiological properties, which may account for its antiarrhythmic effect. In addition, G-Re also exerts antiischemic effect and induces angiogenic regeneration. In this review, we first outline the chemistry and the pharmacological effects of G-Re on the cardiovascular system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Ethnopharmacological relevance: The root of Panax ginseng CA Meyer (ginseng) has been used for diabetes, cancer, stress and allergic diseases in the traditional Chinese medicine. Aim of the study: To understand the role of intestinal microflora in the pharmacological effect of ginsenoside Re, which is a main constituent of ginseng, we investigated its anti-scratching behavioral effect in the mice treated with or without antibiotics. Materials and methods: Ginsenoside Re was orally administered to the mice treated with antibiotics (cefadroxil, oxytetracycline and erythromycin mixture (COE), streptomycin or/and tetracycline) and then investigated the relationship between ginsenoside Re-metabolizing β-glucosidase and α-rhamnosidase activities of intestinal microflora and its antiscratching behavioral effect. The anti-scratching behavioral effects of ginsenosides were investigated in the increments of 1h and 6h after their oral administrations. The scratching behavioral frequency was measured for 1h after treatment with histamine. Results: Ginsenoside Re inhibited histamine-induced scratching behavior in mice. The anti-scratching behavioral effect of ginsenoside Re was more potent 6h after its oral administration than 1h after. However, its inhibitory effect was significantly attenuated in mice treated with COE, but it nearly was not affected in mice treated with streptomycin and/or tetracycline. Treatment with COE also significantly lowered fecal ginsenoside Re-metabolizing β-glucosidase and α-rhamnosidase activities in mice, as well as fecal metabolic activity of ginsenoside Re to ginsenoside Rh1. The anti-scratching behavioral effect of ginsenoside Rh1, a metabolite of ginsenoside Re by intestinal microflora, was superior to that of ginsenoside Re. Ginsenoside Rh1 potently inhibited the expression of IL-4 and TNF-α, as well as the activation of NF-κB and c-jun activation in histamine-stimulated scratching behavioral mice. Conclusion: Ginsenoside Re may be metabolized to ginsenoside Rh1 by intestinal microflora, which enhances its anti-scratching behavioral effect by inhibiting NF-κB and c-jun activations. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Ginsenosides Re and Rg1, the main bioactive components of Panax ginseng, have been preparatively isolated and purified using high-speed counter-current chromatography (HSCCC) combined with MCI gel column chromatography (MCI gel CC). Guided by HPLC-MS, the crude extracts from the roots of P. ginseng were pre-separated on an MCI gel column to obtain mixtures of ginsenosides Re and Rg1. Then, a 200 mg volume of enriched sample was separated by HSCCC with a two-phase solvent system composed of ethyl acetate–n-butanol–water (4: 1: 6, v/v/v), yielding 52.6 mg of Rg1 and 37.2 mg of Re with the purities of 99.3% and 98.2%, respectively. The total recovery of Rg1 and Re was 82.4% and 84.4%, respectively, in the two-step separation. This study introduces a fast and efficient method for purification of ginsenosides Re and Rg1 from P. ginseng. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In the present study, we examined the effects of ginsenoside Re (Re) on cytokine expression, cytokine-dependent autophagy and cell survival in human CD4+ T cells. When CD4+ T cells isolated from human peripheral blood were treated with Re, LC3 and monodansylcadaverine (MDC), representative markers of autophagy, were decreased in a dose-dependent manner. Interestingly, Re suppressed the production of interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) and immunity-related GTPase family M (IRGM) in CD4+ T cells whereas no changes in other autophagy-related signaling molecules (ERK, p38 and AKT-mTOR-p70S6k) were found. Concomitantly, we observed that Re increased the proliferation of CD4+ T cells with decreased cell death. Our results demonstrate that ginsenoside Re enhanced viability of CD4+ T cells through the regulation of IFN-γ-dependent autophagy activity. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Ginsenoside Re is the major ginsenoside in ginseng berry(GB) extract and its pharmacokinetics were studied following the intravenous and oral administration of pure Re or ginseng berry extract in mouse with doses of 10 and 50mg/kg using ultra performance liquid chromatography mass spectrometric (UPLC/MS) method which can simultaneously determine ginsenoside Re, Rg1 and Rh1 in mouse serum. The serum samples were pretreated by protein precipitation and chromatographic separation was performed on AQUITY UPLC BEH C18 column using gradient elution with the mobile phase of 5mM ammonium formate and acetonitrile. Analytes and digoxin (I.S.) were analyzed and identified using an electrospray negative ionization mass spectrometry in the selected ion monitoring mode with the linear concentration range of 5.0–5000ng/mL and lower limits of detection (LLOD) under 2.5ng/mL. Ginsenoside Re was rapidly cleared from the body with a short half-life (0.2±0.03h for male and 0.5±0.08h for female mice after i.v.) and oral absorption was generally poor (F% 0.19–0.28). Notably, GB extract showed a superior oral absorption of ginsenoside Re (F% 0.33–0.75) at equivalent ginsenoside Re dose to pure ginsenoside Re, indicating that GB extract might be a good form for ginsenoside Re intake. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Ginsenoside Re is one of the major the bioactive triterpene saponins in ginseng root, a well-known adaptogen in traditional Chinese medicine. It is believed that the lead compound may be further developed into a promising new drug for preventing hypertension and cardiovascular disease. To better understand the pharmacological activities of the component, an investigation of its in vivo metabolism was necessary. In the present study, a high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization and quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-TOF-MS/MS) has been applied to discover and identify the metabolites of ginsenoside Re in rat urine following intravenous and oral administration of the component, respectively. The rat urine samples were collected and pretreated through C18 solid-phase extraction cartridges prior to analysis. Negative electrospray ionization mass spectrometry was used to discern ginsenoside Re and its possible metabolites in urine samples. The metabolites were identified and tentatively characterized by means of comparing molecular mass, retention time, and fragmentation pattern of the analytes with those of the parent compound, ginsenoside Re. As a result, eleven and nine metabolites together with Re were detected and identified in rat urine collected after intravenous and oral administration, respectively. A possible metabolic pathway of ginsenoside Re was also investigated and proposed. Oxidation and deglycosylation were found to be the major metabolic processes of the constituent in rat. [Figure not available: see fulltext.] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: We have previously demonstrated that American ginseng berry extract exhibited significant protection against oxidant-mediated injury in cardiomyocytes. To extend this work, we sought to investigate the antioxidant effects of Re, a protopanaxatriols-type and single chemical integrant present in American ginseng berry extract, using the same chick cardiomyocyte model of oxidant injury as well as ESR spectroscopy in a cell-free chemical system. In cells exposed to 2 h of H2O2 (0.5 mM), pretreatment with Re (0.05, 0.1, or 0.5 mg/ml for 2 h) significantly attenuated 2′,7′-dichlorofluorescein (DCF) fluorescence by 51% (from 1345±67 to 658±46 a.u., P <0.001), and remarkably reduced cell death (from 51.5±3.0% to 11.8±1.5%, P <0.001, compared to the control). Similar results were also observed in cells exposed to antimycin A (100 μM), a mitochondrial electron transport chain site III inhibitor which increases endogenous oxidative stress. In the ESR study, however, Re failed to reduce the formation of the superoxide/DMPO adduct and DPPH radicals. These results suggest that ginsenoside Re functions as an antioxidant, protecting cardiomyocytes from oxidant injury induced by both exogenous and endogenous oxidants, and that its protective effects may be mostly attributed to scavenging H2O2 and hydroxyl radicals. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: A chromatographic immunostaining method has been developed for the determination of ginsenoside Re (G-Re) in ginseng samples on a polyethersulphone (PES) membrane. G-Re standard and the extracts of ginseng roots were applied to a PES membrane and developed by methanol–water–acetic acid (45:55:1, by volume). G-Re was clearly detected by an immunostaining method using a monoclonal antibody against G-Re. The coloring spots of G-Re were analyzed quantitatively using NIH Image software indicating at least 0.125μg of G-Re was detectable. G-Re can be analyzed quantitatively between 0.25 and 4.0μg. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Background: Pregnant women commonly consume ginseng. However, there is little data concerning the effects of ginseng on early pregnancy. Methods: Rat embryos were exposed in vitro to different concentrations of Rc and Re from day 9.5 to day 11.5 after conception. Embryos were scored for growth and differentiation at the end of the culture period. Results: Embryos exposed to 50.0 μg/ml Re had significantly lower median morphological score (29.0 versus 48.0), fewer number of somites (15.0 versus 21.0), and smaller yolk sac diameter (3.5 versus 4.1 mm) and crown-rump length (CRL) (2.9 versus 3.4 mm) compare to control embryos. There was no significant difference between embryos exposed to 5.0 μg/ml Re and control embryos. There was also no difference in the biometric and morphologic parameters among control and embryos exposed to 5.0 and 50.0 μg/ml Rc. Conclusion: There is a significant variability in embryotoxic effects of different ginsenosides. Further studies to evaluate the synergistic embryotoxic effects of ginsenosides are warranted. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

1: Ginsenoside Re, a major ingredient of Panax ginseng, protects the heart against ischemia-reperfusion injury by shortening action potential duration (APD) and thereby prohibiting influx of excessive Ca2+. Ginsenoside Re enhances the slowly activating component of the delayed rectifier K+ current (IKs) and suppresses the L-type Ca2+ current (ICa,L), which may account for APD shortening. 2: We used perforated configuration of patch-clamp technique to define the mechanism of enhancement of IKs and suppression of ICa,L by ginsenoside Re in guinea-pig ventricular myocytes. 3: S-Methylisothiourea (SMT, 1?µM), an inhibitor of nitric oxide (NO) synthase (NOS), and N-acetyl-L-cystein (LNAC, 1?mM), an NO scavenger, inhibited IKs enhancement. Application of an NO donor, sodium nitroprusside (SNP, 1?mM), enhanced IKs with a magnitude similar to that by a maximum dose (20?µM) of ginseonside Re, and subsequent application of ginsenoside Re failed to enhance IKs. Conversely, after IKs had been enhanced by ginsenoside Re (20?µM), subsequently applied SNP failed to further enhance IKs. 4: An inhibitor of guanylate cyclase, 1H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one (ODQ, 10?µM), barely suppressed IKs enhancement, while a thiol-alkylating reagent, N-ethylmaleimide (NEM, 0.5?mM), clearly suppressed it. A reducing reagent, di-thiothreitol (DTT, 5?mM), reversed both ginsenoside Re- and SNP-induced IKs enhancement. 5: ICa,L suppression by ginsenoside Re (3?µM) was abolished by SMT (1?µM) or LNAC (1?mM). NEM (0.5?mM) did not suppress ICa,L inhibition and DTT (5?mM) did not reverse ICa,L inhibition, whereas in the presence of ODQ (10?µM), ginsenoside Re (3?µM) failed to suppress ICa,L. 6: These results indicate that ginsenoside Re-induced IKs enhancement and ICa,L suppression involve NO actions. Direct S-nitrosylation of channel protein appears to be the main mechanism for IKs enhancement, while a cGMP-dependent pathway is responsible for ICa,L inhibition.British Journal of Pharmacology (2004) 142, 567-575. doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0705814 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We have found that ginsenoside Rc and Re induce c-fos in MCF-7 human breast carcinoma cells at both the mRNA and protein levels. However, neither ginsenoside activated the expression of reporter gene under the control of AP-1/TPA response elements. We have also examined the possibility that ginsenoside Rc and Re act by binding to intracellular steroid hormone receptors that act as transcriptional factors in the nucleus in inducing c-fos mRNA in MCF7 human breast carcinoma cells. However, ginsenoside Rc and Re did not bind to glucocorticoid, androgen, estrogen, or retinoic acid receptors as examined by the transcription activation of the luciferase reporter genes in CV-1 cells that were transiently transfected with the corresponding steroid hormone receptors and hormone responsive luciferase reporter plasmids. These data demonstrate that ginsenoside Rc and Re act via other transcription factors and not via estrogen receptor in c-Fos expression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A vertical farm platform was developed to produce ginseng berries. • Four-year-old ginsengs were cultivated in the vertical farm and an open field. • Environmental conditions were steady in the vertical farm and not the open field. • Ginseng berry yield was significantly higher in the vertical farm. • Chemical composition differed in ginseng berries from the two systems. Ginsenosides are a class of natural product steroid glycosides and triterpene saponins with great therapeutic value. Although ginseng berries contain 4–10 times more ginsenosides than ginseng roots, a sustainable method has been established for ginseng root production but not for ginseng berry production. We elucidated the best conditions for stable berry production by cultivating four-year-old ginsengs on a developed vertical farm (VF) platform in a 3-level stereoscopic facility. Ginseng was cultivated in soil in mesh containers in three levels of cultivation shelves (W 0.85 m × D 4.80 m × H 1.15 m) installed in a cultivation room (W 5.88 m× 10.00 m × H 6.00 m). Each plant produced approximately 15 berries (3 g) in the VF, which is as many as those produced by plants in open fields (OF). Ginsenoside Rg1 and syringaresinol levels were higher in the berries from the VF than in those from the OF. In contrast, levels of total ginsenosides Rc, Rb2, and Rd were lower in berries from the VF than in those from the OF. Further, the levels of ginsenoside Re (major ginsenoside in ginseng berries from VF) were similar in the VF and OF. This difference in chemical composition can be attributed to the less variable environmental conditions in the VF compared to the OF. Berry yield strongly correlated with stem diameter and root weight. We thus conclude that this VF platform could be used to produce as many ginseng berries as an OF would produce. Additionally, it could be used for year-round production, thus enabling constant supply of therapeutically useful ginseng berries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]