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Background The control of onchocerciasis in Ghana started in 1974 under the auspices of the Onchocerciasis Control Programme (OCP). Between 1974 and 2002, a combination of approaches including vector control, mobile community ivermectin treatment, and community-directed treatment with ivermectin (CDTI) were employed. From 1997, CDTI became the main control strategy employed by the Ghana OCP (GOCP). This review was undertaken to assess the impact of the control interventions on onchocerciasis in Ghana between 1974 and 2016, since which time the focus has changed from control to elimination. Methods In this paper, we review programme data from 1974 to 2016 to assess the impact of control activities on prevalence indicators of onchocerciasis. This review includes an evaluation of CDTI implementation, microfilaria (Mf) prevalence assessments and rapid epidemiological mapping of onchocerciasis results. Results This review indicates that the control of onchocerciasis in Ghana has been very successful, with a significant decrease in the prevalence of infection from 69.13% [95% confidence interval) CI 60.24–78.01] in 1975 to 0.72% (95% CI 0.19–1.26) in 2015. Similarly, the mean community Mf load decreased from 14.48 MF/skin snip in 1975 to 0.07 MF/skin snip (95% CI 0.00–0.19) in 2015. Between 1997 and 2016, the therapeutic coverage increased from 58.50 to 83.80%, with nearly 100 million ivermectin tablets distributed. Conclusions Despite the significant reduction in the prevalence of onchocerciasis in Ghana, there are still communities with MF prevalence above 1%. As the focus of the GOCP has changed from the control of onchocerciasis to its elimination, both guidance and financial support are required to ensure that the latter goal is met. Graphical Abstract

OBJECTIVES: The study assessed associations between Schistosoma haematobium infection (presence of parasite eggs in urine or hematuria) and self-reported metrics (macrohematuria, fetching surface water, or swimming) to evaluate their performance as proxies of infection in presence of regular preventive chemotherapy. It also examined community water characteristics (safe water access, surface water access, and groundwater quality) to provide context for schistosomiasis transmission in different types of communities and propose interventions. METHODS: Logistic regression was used to assess the associations between the various measured and self-reported metrics in a sample of 897 primary school children in 30 rural Ghanaian communities. Logistic regression was also used to assess associations between community water characteristics, self-reported water-related behaviors and S. haematobium infection. Communities were subsequently categorized as candidates for three types of interventions: additional safe water sources, water treatment, and education about water-related disease risk, depending on their water profile. RESULTS: Microhematuria presence measured with a reagent strip was a good proxy of eggs in urine at individual (Kendall’s τ(b) = 0.88, p

Background Lymphatic filariasis (LF) is endemic in Ghana, and the country has implemented the GPELF strategy since 2000 with significant progress made in the control of the disease. However, after several years of mass drug administration (MDA) implementation, there is persistent transmission in 17 of the 98 endemic districts in the country. Current approaches to surveillance are clearly unable to target untreated individuals and new strategies are required to address the endgame challenges to enhance LF elimination as a public health problem in endemic countries. Community registers are used during MDAs to enumerate community members, their age, gender, house numbers, and records of their participation in MDAs. These MDA registers represent an untapped opportunity to identify and characterize non-compliance and inform appropriate programmatic actions. In this study, we analyzed the data presented in the registers to assess the coverage and individuals’ compliance in MDA. Methods The information in the MDA registers were assessed to verify the reported coverages obtained from the district. The community registers were obtained from the district health offices and the data from each individual record was entered into a database. A simple questionnaire was used to cross-check the participation of study participants in the 2017 MDA. The questionnaire solicited data on: participation in the 2017 MDA, reasons for not taking part in the MDA, adverse events experienced, what was done for the adverse events, and willingness to participate in subsequent MDAs. Results We found that 40.1% of the population in the registers missed at least one MDA in 3 years (2016–2018) and the majority of them were between 10–30 years of age. The results of the questionnaire assessment indicated that 13.8% of the respondents did not receive treatment in 2017 for various reasons, the most prominent among them being “absence/travel” (37.1%). Data in the registers were used to verify the treatment coverage for the years 2017 and 2018, and reviewed against the reported coverage obtained from the district. Significant differences between the reported and verified coverages were only observed in four communities. However, the assessment also revealed that the reported coverage was only accurate in 33.3% of cases. Conclusions The MDA registers allow for the identification of eligible individuals who were not reached during any MDA round. Thus, the MDA registers could be utilized at the community and programme levels to identify missing and untreated individuals, appropriately address their non-compliance to MDA, and thereby improve MDA coverage in each implementation unit and monitor the progress towards elimination of LF. The challenges observed through the review of the registers also offer opportunities to improve the training given to the community drug distributors., Author summary Elephantiasis is a disease that is common in Ghana. Since the year 2000 the country has implemented a control programme aimed at eliminating the disease as a public health problem, through the yearly treatment of entire communities in districts where the disease is found. Achievements have been made, and treatment has stopped in many districts; however, some districts have received many years of treatment without successfully reducing the infections below the targeted levels. Many individuals go untreated every year, as can be observed from the low reported treatment coverage after MDA. This untreated population may explain why some districts have failed to achieve the criteria for stopping treatment. Fortunately, the treatments are recorded in community registers, which contain the details of all community members, as well as their treatment participation. These registers can therefore be used to identify people who have not received treatment and design appropriate interventions to reach them. Through these registers, we were able to identify and characterize individuals who were not treated between 2016 and 2018 in 10 communities. We found that 4 out of 10 people missed at least one treatment between 2016 and 2018, and the majority of them were 10–30 years of age. Using the information from the registers we were also able to verify the proportion of people who took part in the treatments in 2017 and 2018, and compared this to what was reported. This comparison revealed that the reporting was only accurate in 33% of cases. A questionnaire was also used to cross-check the participation of study participants in the 2017 MDA, with results indicating that 13.8% of the respondents did not receive treatment for various reasons, the most prominent among them being “absence/travel” (37.1%). Although these registers are seldom used by the Lymphatic Filariasis Control Programme for anything other than recording and reporting treatment information, this study shows that the registers provide an opportunity to identify individuals who have not received treatment, develop a plan to appropriately address their reasons for not taking part in the treatments, target these untreated individuals to improve the overall proportion of people taking part in MDA, and assess the accuracy of reported coverage information. These activities will allow the programme to better monitor the progress towards, and ultimately achieve, elimination of lymphatic filariasis as a public health problem.

The African Programme for Onchocerciasis Control (APOC), which focused on annual mass treatment with ivermectin, was launched in 1995 and was replaced by the Expanded Special Project for Neglected Tropical Diseases (ESPEN) by the end of 2015. In Ghana, the Community Directed Treatment with Ivermectin (CDTI) was introduced in 1999. After a decade, biannual reinforcement was introduced during which the Ghana Health Service (GHS) recorded coverage rates through routine data collection. Transmission studies conducted in the Upper Denkyira East Municipal (UDEM) of the forest zone of Ghana in 2002 and 2006 had shown that annual treatments with ivermectin had hardly any effect on the transmission of Onchocerca volvulus by the vector Simulium sanctipauli. In order to establish whether or not this was due to an insufficient compliance to the CDTI programme, an additional questionnaire survey was carried out in 2013 following those conducted in 2002 and 2006. The repeat transmission survey conducted in 2013 in the same area revealed that the vector S. sanctipauli had apparently disappeared from the rivers Ofin and Pra due to gold mining activities. In 2006 and 2013, we conducted surveys using structured questionnaires to address issues related to compliance and to compare results on the effectiveness of CDTI. A total of 692 individuals from 7 villages and 447 individuals from 9 villages were interviewed in 2006 and 2013 respectively. Questions asked included whether or not they had taken the ivermectin and reasons for not doing so when that was the case. Results were compared with the previous investigations conducted in 2002. Whereas official reported coverage rates ranged from 59 to 85% in 2006 and from 88 to 97% in 2013, compliance rates decreased from 36% in 2006 to 21% in 2013. Factors affecting compliance included fear of unpleasant side effects (pruritus and oedema), which decreased from 36% to 21% for the same period. Lack of awareness of CDTI sharply increased from 12% to 46% for the same period. Participants believed that treatments were no longer necessary due to the absence of vectors observed in 2013. There seems to be a considerable difference between coverage and compliance rates in the study communities. The difference can be attributed to the performance of the Community-Directed Distributors (CDDs) and the absence of the vector population observed in 2013. Discussions with CDDs suggested that factors that led to non-compliance were mostly side effects, unawareness of the disease by immigrants and lack of financial motivation for the CDDs. Also included was the fact that they needed to complete distribution of the drugs in the entire village, covering all households within just one week irrespective of the size of the catchment area. This, they thought was too much work for a short period of time. We propose to intensify the training of CDDs by the national Neglected Tropical Diseases Programme (NTDP) and to include the Community-based Health and Planning Services (CHPS) concept into onchocerciasis control efforts for awareness creation while the vector population and the transmission should be further monitored. The population should be made aware that the side effects they experienced from previous treatments or had heard about had reduced significantly. They also should be in the known that vector flies may return and so the risk of transmission remains.

Background Despite the progress achieved in scaling-up mass drug administration (MDA) for lymphatic filariasis (LF) in Ghana, communities with persistent LF still exist even after 10 years of community treatment. To understand the reasons for persistence, we conducted a study to assess the status of disease elimination and understand the adherence to interventions including MDA and insecticide treated nets. Methodology and principal findings We conducted a parasitological and epidemiological cross-sectional study in adults from eight villages still under MDA in the Northern Region savannah and the coastal Western Region of the country. Prevalence of filarial antigen ranged 0 to 32.4% and in five villages the prevalence of night blood microfilaria (mf) was above 1%, ranging from 0 to 5.7%. Median mf density was 67 mf/ml (range: 10–3,560). LF antigen positivity was positively associated with male sex but negatively associated with participating in MDA the previous year. Male sex was also associated with a decreased probability of participating in MDA. A stochastic model (TRANSFIL) was used to assess the expected microfilaria prevalence under different MDA coverage scenarios using historical data on one community in the Western Region. In this example, the model simulations suggested that the slow decline in mf prevalence is what we would expect given high baseline prevalence and a high correlation between MDA adherence from year to year, despite high MDA coverage. Conclusions There is a need for an integrated quantitative and qualitative research approach to identify the variations in prevalence, associated risk factors and intervention coverage and use levels between and within regions and districts. Such knowledge will help target resources and enhance surveillance to the communities most at risk and to reach the 2020 LF elimination goals in Ghana., Author summary Lymphatic filariasis (LF) is a mosquito-borne disease and a leading cause of disability and chronic morbidity worldwide. Despite the progress achieved so far in stopping LF transmission by treating the affected communities with specific drugs over several years, areas where lymphatic filariasis persists still exist. Understanding the reasons behind this is pivotal to both reach and sustain elimination. We investigated the factors associated with filariasis persistence in various communities still under drug treatment from two regions of Ghana. We reported high variability in disease burden, adherence to drug treatment and mosquito net use between regions and communities. LF infection was associated with men and not taking the drugs, and men were also less likely to take treatment. Using mathematical modelling, we showed that slight increases in treatment coverage will accelerate elimination. Our findings highlight the reasons for LF persistence and provide guidance on how to successfully achieve elimination by refining drug treatment distribution and mosquito control interventions more tailored to individuals and communities. We also demonstrated the value of using field-collected data in mathematical models to assess the current status of disease elimination and to identify the gaps in control interventions.

Background Ghana started its national programme to eliminate lymphatic filariasis (LF) in 2000, with mass drug administration (MDA) with ivermectin and albendazole as main strategy. We review the progress towards elimination that was made by 2016 for all endemic districts of Ghana and analyze microfilaria (mf) prevalence from sentinel and spot-check sites in endemic districts. Methods We reviewed district level data on the history of MDA and outcomes of transmission assessment surveys (TAS). We further collated and analyzed mf prevalence data from sentinel and spot-check sites. Results MDA was initiated in 2001–2006 in all 98 endemic districts; by the end of 2016, 81 had stopped MDA after passing TAS and after an average of 11 rounds of treatment (range 8–14 rounds). The median reported coverage for the communities was 77–80%. Mf prevalence survey data were available for 430 communities from 78/98 endemic districts. Baseline mf prevalence data were available for 53 communities, with an average mf prevalence of 8.7% (0–45.7%). Repeated measurements were available for 78 communities, showing a steep decrease in mean mf prevalence in the first few years of MDA, followed by a gradual further decline. In the 2013 and 2014 surveys, 7 and 10 communities respectively were identified with mf prevalence still above 1% (maximum 5.6%). Fifteen of the communities above threshold are all within districts where MDA was still ongoing by 2016. Conclusions The MDA programme of the Ghana Health Services has reduced mf prevalence in sentinel sites below the 1% threshold in 81/98 endemic districts in Ghana, yet 15 communities within 13 districts (MDA ongoing by 2016) had higher prevalence than this threshold during the surveys in 2013 and 2014. These districts may need to intensify interventions to achieve the WHO 2020 target., Author summary Lymphatic filariasis (LF) control in Ghana has relied on ivermectin and albendazole since the year 2000 when the Ghana Filariasis Elimination Programme started. We analyzed trends in microfilaraemia prevalence during MDA, reported coverage, and transmission assessment survey using data obtained from the Ghana Health Services (GHS). The median reported treatment coverage varied between 77–80% over the years. Our results show that the treatment in Ghana made a significant impact in reducing infections

The first 3 years of biannual ivermectin distribution in Ghana have substantially reduced Onchocerca volvulus infection levels in 10 sentinel communities, but longitudinal analysis indicates that some communities are still consistently responding suboptimally to treatment, with implications for onchocerciasis elimination., Background. Several African countries have adopted a biannual ivermectin distribution strategy in some foci to control and eliminate onchocerciasis. In 2010, the Ghana Health Service started biannual distribution to combat transmission hotspots and suboptimal responses to treatment. We assessed the epidemiological impact of the first 3 years of this strategy and quantified responses to ivermectin over 2 consecutive rounds of treatment in 10 sentinel communities. Methods. We evaluated Onchocerca volvulus community microfilarial intensity and prevalence in persons aged ≥20 years before the first, second, and fifth (or sixth) biannual treatment rounds using skin snip data from 956 participants. We used longitudinal regression modeling to estimate rates of microfilarial repopulation of the skin in a cohort of 217 participants who were followed up over the first 2 rounds of biannual treatment. Results. Biannual treatment has had a positive impact, with substantial reductions in infection intensity after 4 or 5 rounds in most communities. We identified 3 communities—all having been previously recognized as responding suboptimally to ivermectin—with statistically significantly high microfilarial repopulation rates. We did not find any clear association between microfilarial repopulation rate and the number of years of prior intervention, coverage, or the community level of infection. Conclusions. The strategy of biannual ivermectin treatment in Ghana has reduced O. volvulus microfilarial intensity and prevalence, but suboptimal responses to treatment remain evident in a number of previously and consistently implicated communities. Whether increasing the frequency of treatment will be sufficient to meet the World Health Organization's 2020 elimination goals remains uncertain.

Ghana has been implementing mass drug administration (MDA) of ivermectin and albendazole for the elimination of lymphatic filariasis (LF) since the year 2000, as part of the Global Programme to Eliminate Lymphatic Filariasis (GPELF). It was estimated that 5&ndash, 6 years of treatment would be sufficient to eliminate the disease. Tremendous progress has been made over the years, and treatment has stopped in many disease endemic districts. However, despite the successful implementation of MDA, there are districts with persistent transmission. In this study we assessed the epidemiology of LF in three adjoining districts that have received at least 16 years of MDA. The assessments were undertaken one year after the last MDA. 1234 adults and 182 children below the age of 10 years were assessed. The overall prevalence of circulating filarial antigen in the study participants was 8.3% (95% CI: 6.9&ndash, 9.9), with an estimated microfilaria prevalence of 1.2%. The microfilarial intensity in positive individuals ranged from 1 to 57 microfilariae/mL of blood. Higher antigen prevalence was detected in males (13.0%, 95% CI: 10.3&ndash, 16.2) compared to females (5.5%, 95% CI: 4.1&ndash, 7.2). The presence of infection was also highest in individuals involved in outdoor commercial activities, with the risks of infection being four- to five-fold higher among farmers, fishermen, drivers and artisans, compared to all other occupations. Using bednets or participating in MDA did not significantly influence the risk of infection. No children below the age of 10 years were found with infection. Detection of Wb123 antibodies for current infections indicated a prevalence of 14.4% (95% CI: 8.1&ndash, 23.0) in antigen-positive individuals above 10 years of age. No antibodies were detected in children 10 years or below. Assessment of infection within the An. gambiae vectors of LF indicated an infection rate of 0.9% (95% CI: 0.3&ndash, 2.1) and infectivity rate of 0.5% (95% CI: 0.1&ndash, 1.6). These results indicate low-level transmission within the districts, and suggest that it will require targeted interventions in order to eliminate the infection.

Background Schistosomiasis is a water-related neglected tropical disease. In many endemic low- and middle-income countries, insufficient surveillance and reporting lead to poor characterization of the demographic and geographic distribution of schistosomiasis cases. Hence, modeling is relied upon to predict areas of high transmission and to inform control strategies. We hypothesized that utilizing remotely sensed (RS) environmental data in combination with water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) variables could improve on the current predictive modeling approaches. Methodology Schistosoma haematobium prevalence data, collected from 73 rural Ghanaian schools, were used in a random forest model to investigate the predictive capacity of 15 environmental variables derived from RS data (Landsat 8, Sentinel-2, and Global Digital Elevation Model) with fine spatial resolution (10–30 m). Five methods of variable extraction were tested to determine the spatial linkage between school-based prevalence and the environmental conditions of potential transmission sites, including applying the models to known human water contact locations. Lastly, measures of local water access and groundwater quality were incorporated into RS-based models to assess the relative importance of environmental and WASH variables. Principal findings Predictive models based on environmental characterization of specific locations where people contact surface water bodies offered some improvement as compared to the traditional approach based on environmental characterization of locations where prevalence is measured. A water index (MNDWI) and topographic variables (elevation and slope) were important environmental risk factors, while overall, groundwater iron concentration predominated in the combined model that included WASH variables. Conclusions/Significance The study helps to understand localized drivers of schistosomiasis transmission. Specifically, unsatisfactory water quality in boreholes perpetuates reliance on surface water bodies, indirectly increasing schistosomiasis risk and resulting in rapid reinfection (up to 40% prevalence six months following preventive chemotherapy). Considering WASH-related risk factors in schistosomiasis prediction can help shift the focus of control strategies from treating symptoms to reducing exposure., Author summary Schistosomiasis is a water-related neglected tropical disease that disproportionately affects school-aged children in poor communities of low- and middle-income countries. Schistosomiasis transmission risk is affected by environmental, socioeconomic, and behavioral factors, including water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) conditions. We used fine spatial resolution (10–30 m) remotely sensed data, in combination with measures of local water access and groundwater quality, to predict schistosomiasis risk in 73 rural Ghanaian communities. We found that applying environmental models to specific locations where people contact surface water bodies (i.e., potential transmission locations), rather than to locations where prevalence is measured, improved model performance. A remotely sensed water index and topographic variables (elevation and slope) were important environmental risk factors, while overall, groundwater iron concentration predominated. In the study area, unsatisfactory water quality in boreholes perpetuates reliance of surface water bodies, indirectly increasing schistosomiasis risk and resulting in rapid reinfection (up to 40% prevalence six months following deworming). Considering WASH-related risk factors in schistosomiasis prediction can help shift the focus of control strategies from treating symptoms to reducing exposure.

(1) Background: Current international policy for schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminthiasis (STH) control emphasises mass administration of deworming drugs in school-based programmes. However, this approach is insufficient to control the transmission of these diseases, and their burden in non-school cohorts is recognised, albeit under-researched. This research will investigate the feasibility and acceptability of expanding access to praziquantel (PZQ) against schistosomiasis, and albendazole (ALB) against STH, to communities in selected transmission settings in Ghana. (2) Methods: A three-site longitudinal study will be implemented to investigate the effectiveness of expanding treatment strategies for PZQ and ALB to community members. In the context of community mass drug administration (to preschool children, school non-attending children, and adults, including pregnant women), the intervention will be assessed in a random sample of community members, at baseline with follow-up at 6, 12, and 18 months. In each community, 658 participants will be enrolled, and 314 followed up at each time point. The primary outcome measure is the prevalence of infection of Schistosoma haematobium and/or S. mansoni at study endpoint, as assessed by longitudinal surveys. Secondary outcomes are to quantify the infection of schistosomiasis and STH infections in non-treated cohorts, reductions in prevalence of STH, and intensity of schistosomiasis and STH, and treatment coverage. Nested within this study will be qualitative, cost-benefit, and cost-effectiveness evaluations that will explore accessibility, feasibility, and economic impact of expanded treatment from different complementary perspectives. (3) Discussion: Using a multidisciplinary approach, this study will generate evidence for improved availability, acceptability, affordability, and accessibility to deworming drugs against schistosomiasis and STH to individuals and communities in Ghana. This is likely to have considerable research, programmatic, and political value to contribute evidence for national programme policy development within Ghana, and, more broadly, World Health Organization policy development.

Background The Global Programme for the Elimination of Lymphatic Filariasis (GPELF) has been in operation since the year 2000, with the aim of eliminating the disease by the year 2020, following five to six rounds of effective annual mass drug administration (MDA). The treatment regimen is ivermectin (IVM) in combination with diethylcarbamazine (DEC) or albendazole (ALB). In Ghana, MDA has been undertaken since 2001. While the disease has been eliminated in many areas, transmission has persisted in some implementation units that had experienced 15 or more rounds of MDA. Thus, new intervention strategies could eliminate residual infection in areas of persistent transmission and speed up the lymphatic filariasis (LF)-elimination process. This study, therefore, seeks to test the hypothesis that biannual treatment of LF-endemic communities will accelerate the interruption of LF in areas of persistent transmission. Methods A cluster randomised trial will be implemented in LF-endemic communities in Ghana. The interventions will be yearly or twice-yearly MDA delivered to entire endemic communities. Allocation to study group will be by clusters identified using the prevalence of LF. Clusters will be randomised to one of two groups: receiving either (1) annual treatment with IVM + ALB or (2) annual MDA with IVM + ALB, followed by an additional MDA 6 months later. The primary outcome measure is the prevalence of LF infection, assessed by four cross-sectional surveys. Entomological assessments will also be undertaken to evaluate the transmission intensity of the disease in the study clusters. Costs and cost-effectiveness will be evaluated. Among a random subsample of participants, microfilaria prevalence will be assessed longitudinally. A nested process evaluation, using semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions and a stakeholder analysis, will investigate the community acceptability, feasibility and scale-up of each delivery system. Discussion It is expected that this study will add to the existing evidence on the need for alternative intervention strategies for the elimination of LF in Ghana and in other African countries that are facing similar challenges or are at the beginning of their LF-elimination programmes. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov, ID: NCT03036059. Registered on 26 January 2017. Pan African Clinical Trials Registry, ID: PACTR201702002012425. Registered on 23 February 2017. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13063-017-2196-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Following studies on the transmission of Onchocerca volvulus (Leuckart) by Simulium sanctipauli Vajime & Dunbar (Diptera, Simuliidae) in Upper Denkyira District in Ghana in 2001 and 2002 (Kutin et al., Med Vet Ent 18:167-173, 2004), further assessments were carried out in 2006 and 2013/2014 to determine whether transmission parameters had changed since community-directed ivermectin treatment (CDTI) began in 1999. There were no marked changes of the transmission intensities in 2006. Only slight, but non-significant, reductions were observed in infection rates of parous flies with larval stages (L1-L3) of O. volvulus from 44.1 % (of 1672 parous flies) in 2001/2002 to 42.1 % (506) in 2006 and from 6.5 to 5.9 % of flies carrying infective larvae in their heads. This suggested that there was an ongoing transmission in the area and the parasite reservoir in the human population was still high. Unexpectedly, further assessments conducted in October 2013 and March and October 2014 revealed that the vector S. sanctipauli had apparently disappeared and transmission had ceased, probably as a result of intensified gold mining activities along the rivers Ofin and Pra. The water of both rivers was extremely turbid, heavily loaded with suspended solids, probably preventing the development of blackfly larvae. Some breeding and biting of Simulium yahense Vajime & Dunbar was observed in a small tributary of the Pra, the Okumayemfuo, which is not affected by gold mining. However, the infection rate of flies was low, only 3.7 % of 163 parous flies were infected with first stage (L1) larvae of O. volvulus.

Objective Mass drug Administration (MDA) for the control of Lymphatic filariasis (LF), in Ghana, started in the year 2000. While this had great success in many implementation units, there remain areas with persistent transmission, after more than 10 years of treatment. A closer examination of the parasite populations could help understand the reasons for persistent infections, and formulatingn appropriate strategies to control LF in these areas of persistent transmission. Materials and Methods In a longitudinal study, we assessed the prevalence of microfilaraemia (mf) in two communities with 12 years of MDA in Ghana. In baseline surveys 6 months after the National MDA in 2014, 370 consenting individuals were tested for antigenaemia using immunochromatographic test (ICT) cards, and had their mf count determined through night blood surveys. 48 ICT positives, of whom 17 were positive for mf, were treated with 400 μg/kg ivermectin + 400 mg albendazole and subsequently followed for parasitological assessment at 3-month intervals for 1 year. This overlapped with the National MDA in 2015. Results There was a 68% parasite clearance 3 months after treatment. The pre-treatment mf count differed significantly from the post-treatment mf counts at 3 months (p = 0.0023), 6 months (p = 0.0051), 9 months (p = 0.0113) and 12 months (p = 0.0008). Conclusion In these settings with persistent LF transmission, twice-yearly treatment may help accelerate LF elimination. Further large-scale evaluations are required to ascertain these findings. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

The Global Program to Eliminate Lymphatic Filariasis (GPELF) advocates for the treatment of entire endemic communities, in order to achieve its elimination targets. LF is predominantly a rural disease, and achieving the required treatment coverage in these areas is much easier compared to urban areas that are more complex. In Ghana, parts of the Greater Accra Region with Accra as the capital city are also endemic for LF. Mass Drug Administration (MDA) in Accra started in 2006. However, after four years of treatment, the coverage has always been far below the 65% epidemiologic coverage for interrupting transmission. As such, there was a need to identify the reasons for poor treatment coverage and design specific strategies to improve the delivery of MDA. This study therefore set out to identify the opportunities and barriers for implementing MDA in urban settings, and to develop appropriate strategies for MDA in these settings. An experimental, exploratory study was undertaken in three districts in the Greater Accra region. The study identified various types of non-rural settings, the social structures, stakeholders and resources that could be employed for MDA. Qualitative assessment such as in-depth interviews (IDIs) and focus group discussions (FGDs) with community leaders, community members, health providers, NGOs and other stakeholders in the community was undertaken. The study was carried out in three phases: pre-intervention, intervention and post-intervention phases, to assess the profile of the urban areas and identify reasons for poor treatment coverage using both qualitative and quantitative research methods. The outcomes from the study revealed that, knowledge, attitudes and practices of community members to MDA improved slightly from the pre-intervention phase to the post-intervention phase, in the districts where the interventions were readily implemented by health workers. Many factors such as adequate leadership, funding, planning and community involvement, were identified as being important in improving implementation and coverage of MDA in the study districts. Implementing MDA in urban areas therefore needs to be given significant consideration and planning, if the required coverage rates are to be achieved. This paper, presents the recommendations and strategies for undertaking MDA in urban areas., Author summary The control of lymphatic filariasis depends on the treatment of entire endemic communities, ensuring that a greater proportion of the population is treated. In urban areas, this can be very difficult to achieve. In Ghana, parts of the Greater Accra Region, where the capital city is located, are also endemic for lymphatic filariasis. Treatment in these areas started in 2006, but the proportion of people treated has continuously been below the required programmatic coverage levels. To understand the reasons behind this, a study was undertaken in three endemic districts. The study was carried out in three stages; pre-treatment, treatment and post-treatment. Individuals and groups of people were interviewed in the pre-treatment phase, following which their concerns were used to plan and execute treatment activities. After treatment, some individuals were again interviewed to assess the effectiveness of the interventions. The results showed that the knowledge and behavior of community members towards the disease and treatment activities improved from the pre-treatment to the post-treatment reviews. Many factors were identified including, financial, management and leadership issues that should be considered when planning treatment activities in urban areas.

Among the 216 districts in Ghana, 98 were declared endemic for lymphatic filariasis in 1999 after mapping. Pursuing the goal of elimination, WHO recommends annual treatment using mass drugs administration (MDA) for at least 5 years. MDA was started in the country in 2001 and reached national coverage in 2006. By 2014, 69 districts had 'stopped-MDA' (after passing the transmission assessment survey) while 29 others remained with persistent microfilaraemia (mf) prevalence (≥1%) despite more than 11 years of MDA and were classified as 'hotspots'. An ecological study was carried out to compare baseline mf prevalence and anti-microfilaria interventions between hotspot and stopped-MDA districts. Baseline mf prevalence was significantly higher in hotspots than stopped-MDA districts (p

Background The activities of the Global Programme for the Elimination of Lymphatic Filariasis have been in operation since the year 2000, with Mass Drug Administration (MDA) undertaken yearly in disease endemic communities. Information collected during MDA–such as population demographics, age, sex, drugs used and remaining, and therapeutic and geographic coverage–can be used to assess the quality of the data reported. To assist country programmes in evaluating the information reported, the WHO, in collaboration with NTD partners, including ENVISION/RTI, developed an NTD Data Quality Assessment (DQA) tool, for use by programmes. This study was undertaken to evaluate the tool and assess the quality of data reported in some endemic communities in Ghana. Methods A cross sectional study, involving review of data registers and interview of drug distributors, disease control officers, and health information officers using the NTD DQA tool, was carried out in selected communities in three LF endemic Districts in Ghana. Data registers for service delivery points were obtained from District health office for assessment. The assessment verified reported results in comparison with recounted values for five indicators: number of tablets received, number of tablets used, number of tablets remaining, MDA coverage, and population treated. Furthermore, drug distributors, disease control officers, and health information officers (at the first data aggregation level), were interviewed, using the DQA tool, to determine the performance of the functional areas of the data management system. Findings The results showed that over 60% of the data reported were inaccurate, and exposed the challenges and limitations of the data management system. The DQA tool is a very useful monitoring and evaluation (M&E) tool that can be used to elucidate and address data quality issues in various NTD control programmes., Author Summary The Global Programme for the Elimination of Lymphatic Filariasis has been conducting yearly treatment of entire communities in endemic countries since the year 2000. During the treatments various information is collected on the populations, number of medicine tablets distributed and remaining, the number of people treated, etc. that can be used to evaluate the performance of the lymphatic filariasis control programme. For example, information on the number of people treated in a District gives an indication of the success of the programme. In line with this, the World Health Organization in collaboration with other agencies developed a tool for Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTD) to help national control programmes assemble and analyse their data. This study was undertaken to evaluate this tool and the information collected from some endemic communities in Ghana. Community registers were reviewed and personnel involved in drug distribution in the communities were interviewed to collect the necessary information. The results showed that more than half of the data reported in the endemic communities surveyed were inaccurate. It also revealed some weaknesses in the data management and reporting system. The tool, however, is good for identifying and quantifying the magnitude of the challenges encountered in the information management for NTD programmes, especially at peripheral levels.

OBJECTIVES Situational analysis of lymphatic filariasis (LF) morbidity and its management in Ahanta West, Ghana, to identify potential barrier to healthcare for LF patients. METHODS Lymphoedema and hydrocoele patients were identified by community health workers from a subset of villages, and were interviewed and participated in focus group discussions to determine their attitudes and practices towards managing their morbidity, and their perceived barriers to accessing care. Local health professionals were also interviewed to obtain their views on the availability of morbidity management services in the district. RESULTS Sixty-two patients (34 lymphoedema and 28 hydrocoeles) and 13 local health professionals were included in the study. Lymphoedema patients predominantly self-managed their conditions, which included washing with soap and water (61.8%), and exercising the affected area (52.9%). Almost 65% of patients had sought medical assistance at some stage, but support was generally limited to receiving tablets (91%). Local health professionals reported rarely seeing lymphoedema patients, citing stigma and lack of provisions to assist patients as a reason for this. Almost half of hydrocoele patients (44%) chose not to seek medical assistance despite the negative impact it had on their lives. Whilst surgery itself is free with national health insurance, 63% those who had not sought treatment stated that indirect costs of surgery (travel costs, loss of earnings, etc.) were the most prohibitive factor to seeking treatment. CONCLUSIONS The information obtained from this study should now be used to guide future morbidity strategies in building a stronger relationship between the local health services and LF patients, to ultimately improve patients' physical, psychological and economic wellbeing.

Background Lymphoedema and hydrocoele are the two most common clinical manifestations of lymphatic filariasis (LF). In order to effectively target morbidity management strategies, more information is rapidly needed on morbidity burden across all endemic countries. The purpose of this study was to develop and test an SMS tool (MeasureSMS) which enables trained community-based health workers to report basic information on all cases they identified. Methods The tool was trialled in Chikwawa district, Malawi and Ahanta West district, Ghana in 2014. Salaried health surveillance assistants (HSAs) identified and reported cases in Malawi whereas volunteer community health workers (CHWs) were used in Ghana. Health workers were trained in recognising lymphoedema and hydrocoeles and submitting individual case data using MeasureSMS, after which they undertook a LF morbidity survey. After the reporting period, a random sample of reported cases was visited by a physician to verify the health workers’ diagnoses. The proportion of correctly diagnosed cases i.e. the positive predictive value (PPV) was then calculated. Results HSAs in Malawi successfully reported 256 unique cases by SMS from 107 communities (166 hydrocoele, 88 lymphoedema, 2 with both), resulting in an estimated adult prevalence of 17.7 per 10,000 and 33.0 per 10,000 for lymphoedema and hydrocoele respectively. In Ghana, despite being less experienced in using SMS, CHWs successfully reported 360 unique cases by SMS from 33 communities (169 hydrocoele, 185 lymphoedema, 6 with both), resulting in an estimated adult prevalence of 76.9 per 10,000 and 70.5 per 10,000 adults for lymphoedema and hydrocoele respectively. The verification exercise resulted in a PPV for lymphoedema and hydrocoele diagnosis of 90 % (n = 42, 95 % CI 76.5 – 96.9) and 92 % (n = 49, 95 % CI 79.5 – 97.4) in Malawi and 94 % (n = 34, 95 % CI 78.9 %–99.0 %) and 47 % (n = 59, 35.1 %–61.7 %) in Ghana, indicating that non-invasive methods for diagnosing hydrocoeles needed to be further emphasised. Conclusions The study concludes that given the appropriate education and tools, community-based health workers are exceptionally well-placed to participate in quantifying LF morbidity burden, and other NTDs with observable symptoms. This concept has the potential to enable national programmes to more effectively monitor their community impact in an efficient, timely and cost-effective way. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12879-015-0946-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Background The World Health Organization (WHO) aims at eliminating onchocerciasis by 2020 in selected African countries. Current control focuses on community-directed treatment with ivermectin (CDTI). In Ghana, persistent transmission has been reported despite long-term control. We present spatial and temporal patterns of onchocerciasis transmission in relation to ivermectin treatment history. Methodology/Principal Findings Host-seeking and ovipositing blackflies were collected from seven villages in four regions of Ghana with 3–24 years of CDTI at the time of sampling. A total of 16,443 flies was analysed for infection; 5,812 (35.3%) were dissected for parity (26.9% parous). Heads and thoraces of 12,196 flies were dissected for Onchocerca spp. and DNA from 11,122 abdomens was amplified using Onchocerca primers. A total of 463 larvae (0.03 larvae/fly) from 97 (0.6%) infected and 62 (0.4%) infective flies was recorded; 258 abdomens (2.3%) were positive for Onchocerca DNA. Infections (all were O. volvulus) were more likely to be detected in ovipositing flies. Transmission occurred, mostly in the wet season, at Gyankobaa and Bosomase, with transmission potentials of, respectively, 86 and 422 L3/person/month after 3 and 6 years of CDTI. The numbers of L3/1,000 parous flies at these villages were over 100 times the WHO threshold of one L3/1,000 for transmission control. Vector species influenced transmission parameters. At Asubende, the number of L3/1,000 ovipositing flies (1.4, 95% CI = 0–4) also just exceeded the threshold despite extensive vector control and 24 years of ivermectin distribution, but there were no infective larvae in host-seeking flies. Conclusions/Significance Despite repeated ivermectin treatment, evidence of O. volvulus transmission was documented in all seven villages and above the WHO threshold in two. Vector species influences transmission through biting and parous rates and vector competence, and should be included in transmission models. Oviposition traps could augment vector collector methods for monitoring and surveillance., Author Summary The World Health Organization (WHO) aims at eliminating onchocerciasis by 2020 in selected African countries. The success of elimination using ivermectin treatment alone will depend on several interacting factors including baseline endemicity, treatment coverage and vector species mix. In Ghana, transmission persists despite prolonged control. We investigated entomological determinants of this persistence. Blackflies were collected from seven villages with 3–24 years of ivermectin treatment. A total of 12,196 flies was dissected, with 463 larvae (all Onchocerca volvulus) in 97 infected and 62 infective flies. Transmission indices in the wet season, at Gyankobaa and Bosomase, amounted to, respectively, 86 and 422 infective larvae/person/month after 3 and 6 years of ivermectin treatment. Infection levels at these villages were over 100 times the WHO threshold of one L3/1,000 parous flies. At Asubende, an infective fly was caught among ovipositing flies in nearby breeding sites, indicating that infection was just over the WHO threshold despite extensive ivermectin and vector control. Spatial and seasonal vector species composition influences the magnitude of transmission indices through variations in biting and parous rates, and vectorial competence and capacity, and should be reflected in transmission models. Oviposition traps could enhance vector collection for transmission monitoring and surveillance.

Background It has been proposed that switching from annual to biannual (twice yearly) mass community-directed treatment with ivermectin (CDTI) might improve the chances of onchocerciasis elimination in some African foci. However, historically, relatively few communities have received biannual treatments in Africa, and there are no cost data associated with increasing ivermectin treatment frequency at a large scale. Collecting cost data is essential for conducting economic evaluations of control programmes. Some countries, such as Ghana, have adopted a biannual treatment strategy in selected districts. We undertook a study to estimate the costs associated with annual and biannual CDTI in Ghana. Methodology The study was conducted in the Brong-Ahafo and Northern regions of Ghana. Data collection was organized at the national, regional, district, sub-district and community levels, and involved interviewing key personnel and scrutinizing national records. Data were collected in four districts; one in which treatment is delivered annually, two in which it is delivered biannually, and one where treatment takes place biannually in some communities and annually in others. Both financial and economic costs were collected from the health care provider's perspective. Principal Findings The estimated cost of treating annually was US Dollars (USD) 0.45 per person including the value of time donated by the community drug distributors (which was estimated at USD 0.05 per person per treatment round). The cost of CDTI was approximately 50–60% higher in those districts where treatment was biannual than in those where it was annual. Large-scale mass biannual treatment was reported as being well received and considered sustainable. Conclusions/Significance This study provides rigorous evidence of the different costs associated with annual and biannual CDTI in Ghana which can be used to inform an economic evaluation of the debate on the optimal treatment frequency required to control (or eliminate) onchocerciasis in Africa., Author Summary The African Programme for Onchocerciasis Control (APOC) has recently been extended until 2025, with renewed commitment towards onchocerciasis elimination. This aim is aligned with the goals stated by the World Health Organization and the London Declaration on Neglected Tropical Diseases in January 2012. Switching from annual to biannual (twice yearly) ivermectin distribution might increase the feasibility of onchocerciasis elimination in some African foci. However, relatively few communities have received biannual treatments in Africa, and there are no cost data associated with increasing ivermectin treatment frequency at a large scale, essential pre-requisites to provide reliable information for evidence-based decision making regarding adoption of a biannual treatment strategy. Therefore, we undertook a study to estimate costs associated with biannual compared to annual ivermectin delivery in Ghana, which since 2009 has implemented a biannual treatment strategy in selected priority areas. Our results indicate that the cost of biannual ivermectin treatment per year is approximately 60% higher than the cost of annual treatment. This study provides tangible evidence of the different costs associated with annual and biannual ivermectin treatment, which can be used to inform economic evaluations and policy decisions regarding the optimal treatment frequency required to eliminate onchocerciasis in Africa.

Background Mapping the distribution of schistosomiasis is essential to determine where control programs should operate, but because it is impractical to assess infection prevalence in every potentially endemic community, model-based geostatistics (MBG) is increasingly being used to predict prevalence and determine intervention strategies. Methodology/Principal Findings To assess the accuracy of MBG predictions for Schistosoma haematobium infection in Ghana, school surveys were evaluated at 79 sites to yield empiric prevalence values that could be compared with values derived from recently published MBG predictions. Based on these findings schools were categorized according to WHO guidelines so that practical implications of any differences could be determined. Using the mean predicted values alone, 21 of the 25 empirically determined ‘high-risk’ schools requiring yearly praziquantel would have been undertreated and almost 20% of the remaining schools would have been treated despite empirically-determined absence of infection – translating into 28% of the children in the 79 schools being undertreated and 12% receiving treatment in the absence of any demonstrated need. Conclusions/Significance Using the current predictive map for Ghana as a spatial decision support tool by aggregating prevalence estimates to the district level was clearly not adequate for guiding the national program, but the alternative of assessing each school in potentially endemic areas of Ghana or elsewhere is not at all feasible; modelling must be a tool complementary to empiric assessments. Thus for practical usefulness, predictive risk mapping should not be thought of as a one-time exercise but must, as in the current study, be an iterative process that incorporates empiric testing and model refining to create updated versions that meet the needs of disease control operational managers., Author Summary The challenge of accurately mapping schistosomiasis is a daunting one – particularly because of the highly focal distribution of the disease. Ideally, of course, each specific treatment area would be assessed for infection prevalence and then treated appropriately based on guidelines of the World Health Organization. In practice, however, this is not possible, and a variety of short-cutting techniques have been developed to meet these mapping needs, including geospatial predictive mapping. This paper assesses the accuracy of model-based geostatistics (MBG) predictions for determining treatments projections in Ghana by comparing previously published data using MBG predictions with empirically derived prevalence values for schistosomiasis from school surveys completed at 79 sites. We found that using predictive mapping alone would not have provided reliable information for mass drug administration (MDA) planning – resulting in overtreatment in some areas and most importantly under-treatment in areas that needed it most. Based on our findings, predictive risk mapping cannot be a one-time exercise but must instead be a process that incorporates empiric testing and model refining to create optimised spatial decision support tools that meet the needs of disease control operational managers.

Background Morbidity due to Schistosoma haematobium and hookworm infections is marked in those with intense co-infections by these parasites. The development of a spatial predictive decision-support tool is crucial for targeting the delivery of integrated mass drug administration (MDA) to those most in need. We investigated the co-distribution of S. haematobium and hookworm infection, plus the spatial overlap of infection intensity of both parasites, in Ghana. The aim was to produce maps to assist the planning and evaluation of national parasitic disease control programs. Methodology/Principal Findings A national cross-sectional school-based parasitological survey was conducted in Ghana in 2008, using standardized sampling and parasitological methods. Bayesian geostatistical models were built, including a multinomial regression model for S. haematobium and hookworm mono- and co-infections and zero-inflated Poisson regression models for S. haematobium and hookworm infection intensity as measured by egg counts in urine and stool respectively. The resulting infection intensity maps were overlaid to determine the extent of geographical overlap of S. haematobium and hookworm infection intensity. In Ghana, prevalence of S. haematobium mono-infection was 14.4%, hookworm mono-infection was 3.2%, and S. haematobium and hookworm co-infection was 0.7%. Distance to water bodies was negatively associated with S. haematobium and hookworm co-infections, hookworm mono-infections and S. haematobium infection intensity. Land surface temperature was positively associated with hookworm mono-infections and S. haematobium infection intensity. While high-risk (prevalence >10–20%) of co-infection was predicted in an area around Lake Volta, co-intensity was predicted to be highest in foci within that area. Conclusions/Significance Our approach, based on the combination of co-infection and co-intensity maps allows the identification of communities at increased risk of severe morbidity and environmental contamination and provides a platform to evaluate progress of control efforts., Author Summary Urinary schistosomiasis and hookworm infections cause considerable morbidity in school age children in West Africa. Severe morbidity is predominantly observed in individuals infected with both parasite types and, in particular, with heavy infections. We investigated for the first time the distribution of S. haematobium and hookworm co-infections and distribution of co-intensity of these parasites in Ghana. Bayesian geostatistical models were developed to generate a national co-infection map and national intensity maps for each parasite, using data on S. haematobium and hookworm prevalence and egg concentration (expressed as eggs per 10 mL of urine for S. haematobium and expressed as eggs per gram of faeces for hookworm), collected during a pre-intervention baseline survey in Ghana, 2008. In contrast with previous findings from the East Africa region, we found that both S. haematobium and hookworm infections are highly focal, resulting in small, localized clusters of co-infection and areas of high co-intensity. Overlaying on a single map the co-infection and the intensity of multiple parasite infections allows identification of areas where parasite environmental contamination and morbidity are at its highest, while providing an evidence base for the assessment of the progress of successive rounds of mass drug administration (MDA) in integrated parasitic disease control programs.