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The Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis postulates an inverted U-shaped relationship between different pollutants and economic growth. In Ghana, as in many other developing countries, there exist scanty studies that confirm or otherwise the EKC hypothesis with regards to CO2 emissions as well as the factors that drive CO2 emissions. This work aims to bridge this knowledge gap by addressing these two major questions using data from 1970 to 2010 and the Auto Regressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) Bounds Testing approach. The results rather suggest a U-shaped relationship between per capita GDP and CO2 emissions per capita indicating the non-existence of the EKC hypothesis for CO2 in Ghana. This implies that further increase in per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP) will only be associated with increase in CO2 emissions as the income per capita turning point of about $624 at constant 2000 prices occurred between 1996 and 1997. Furthermore, our results reveal energy consumption and trade openness are positive long run drivers of CO2 emissions. It is therefore recommended that the enhancement of trade liberalization policies should ensure the use of cleaner technologies and products while investment in cleaner energy alternatives could help reduce CO2 emissions. We also recommend the implementation of the Low Carbon Development Strategy which integrates development and climate change mitigation actions.

Cooking, an important household activity is often done using heavy polluting fuels by a majority of households in sub-Sahara Africa (SSA). In this study, we examine how the choice of cooking fuel affects women empowerment using nationwide household level data from Ghana. We examine whether fuel choices could lead to women's social and economic empowerment. By employing the Survey-based Women Empowerment Index (SWPER) and Principal Component Analysis to construct comprehensive indices of women empowerment, we find that using clean cooking fuel has significant positive associations with women empowerment across all domains and could consequently help reduce inequality to the advantage of women. Other socioeconomic factors such as household size and wealth were found to significantly determine women empowerment status. Both clean cooking fuel use and the reduction of social and economic inequalities are important targets to be met under the Sustainable Development Goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is evidence in the literature that there exist gender-related differences in household energy choices. However, most of these studies have assumed the homogenous slope hypothesis a priori, which could affect the results if a formal test rejects the homogenous slope hypothesis. The Exogenous Switching Treatment Effect (ESTER) is used to ascertain the gender effects in household energy choice in Ghana. In comparison with the pooled regression method, ESTER relaxes the assumption of the same effect of covariates on male-headed households (MHHs) and female-headed households (FHHs). The results indicate that if FHHs characteristics were similar to those of MHHs, their probability of choosing cleaner energy would be higher. Our results suggest that supporting the heads in FHHs to have access to more economic opportunities as males tend to will potentially lead to positive effects on their probability of choosing clean energy. Our results give support to policies that strongly favor female education without disadvantaging male education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The crucial role of electricity in prosecuting the development agenda of economies is widely known. Yet some key variables are lacking in the assessment of electricity demand determinants. One such variable is power crises. This study re-visits the discussion by investigating the role of power crises on electricity demand. We employ data from 1980 to 2018 to examine how power crises in general and in particular the 2012–2015 severe power crisis in Ghana impacts electricity consumption. Using various econometric techniques, we find that power crises have adverse effects on electricity demand in the long run. The 2012–2015 episode of power crisis in particular, has potentially led to consumers reconsidering their sources of energy by reducing electricity demand in the long term. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Expanding access to clean cooking fuels is an important driver of sustainable development goal (SDG) 7, which is to ensure universal access to affordable and clean energy. Ghana is among 20 countries that account for more than 80% of the global deficit in access to clean cooking fuel, despite efforts to improve uptake of clean cooking fuel over the years. Using the last three rounds of the Ghana Living Standards Survey, this study examines the trend and extent of economic inequalities, as well as the factors that account for the rural-urban disparity in the use of clean cooking fuels. We first used concentration curves and concentration indices to analyse the magnitude and trend of economic inequality. We then decomposed the rural-urban gap in the use of clean cooking fuels by applying a non-linear decomposition technique. Our results reveal that, in general, economic inequality persists across the three survey rounds. The level of inequality was higher in urban areas but relative change over time was higher in the rural sample. Also, rural-urban differences in economic status, education of the household head and ownership of television were the biggest contributors to the rural-urban gap in clean cooking fuel use. Our findings reveal the need for a more targeted approach in the design and implementation of policies to encourage the use of clean cooking fuels. Tailored strategies to reach the poor and vulnerable in rural and urban areas while scaling up access will be a step in the right direction. • Globally, Ghana is one of 20 countries with over 80% deficit in clean cooking fuel access. • Clean cooking fuel use is concentrated among better-off households and this has increased over time. • Economic inequality in clean cooking fuel use is higher in urban areas. • Rural-urban differences in economic status is one of the key contributor to the rural-urban gap in clean cooking fuel use. • There is the need for proper targeting and reduction in universal policies targeted at improving clean cooking fuel use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electricity is considered one of the basic attributes of modern life. This study examines why some rural households and communities remain without power despite Ghana's progress in rural electrification. The objectives are to analyze the role of socio-economic factors in household electrification and to also examine the welfare impacts of one of Ghana's flagship rural electrification programs. Using the most recent two household datasets constructed from two nationwide household surveys (GLSS VI and GLSS VII samples) combined with other community datasets, the following results were obtained. First, household expenditure, employment status, and gender of the head of the household are significant predictors of rural household electrification in Ghana. Second, these robust predictors tend to persist over the two sample periods. Third, using one of Ghana's flagship rural electrification programs called the Self-Help Electrification Programme (SHEP) as a proxy for public policy, the results indicate that SHEP correlates with improvements in electrification rates of rural communities. Lastly, although rural electrification improves community welfare, its impact is skewed towards rural communities with higher average household expenditure. • Robust predictors of household electrification are expenditure, employment status and gender of the household head. • SHEP accounted for about 15%–17% of the 21% increase in rural electrification rates from 2013 to 2017. • SHEP correlates with actual improvements in electrification rates of rural communities. • Rural electrification through SHEP improves welfare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the dynamics of energy poverty in Ghana using two nationwide cross-sectional datasets (Ghana Living Standards Surveys Round 5 and Round 6). Employing the Multidimensional Energy Poverty Index (MEPI) as a measure of energy poverty, this paper estimates that the share of energy poor people decreased from 88.4% in 2005/2006 to 82.5% in 2012/2013. The results indicate that although there has been a significant decline in the overall energy poverty in Ghana during the study periods, the incidence of energy poverty remains high. Moreover, the study findings show a large gap between urban and rural energy poverty over the two periods; rural people are almost twice as energy poor as urban people. These findings suggest the need for the incorporation of energy poverty reduction strategies into income poverty reduction strategies to help improve not only access to modern energy but also in terms of affordability. • There is a gradual transition from the use of traditional cooking energy sources to modern sources. • Overall energy poverty in Ghana has significantly reduced but incidence of energy poverty continues to be very high. • Rural people are almost twice as energy poor as urban people. • The goal of reducing energy poverty can be incorporated into income poverty reduction strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • This study examines the factors affecting household energy expenditures in Ghana. • We employ the double-hurdle model to investigate fuel choice and expenditures. • Results show that the factors influencing above two differ. • Households using LPG or charcoal are indifferent to prices of other fuels. • Results suggest a difference in policy response between rural and urban households. Abstract This study examines the factors affecting household energy expenditures in Ghana. We employ the double-hurdle model to investigate whether the factors affecting fuel choice differ from those affecting fuel expenditures. The following results are obtained using a nationwide representative household dataset. First, we show that the factors influencing the household's decision to participate in either the LPG or charcoal market differ from those influencing how much is spent. Second, households that already use and, therefore spend money to acquire LPG or charcoal are indifferent to prices of other fuels. At the same time, households using and spending positive amounts on multiple cooking fuels (charcoal and LPG) are insensitive to the prices of other fuels. Third, although income plays a role in rural and urban residents' expenditures on LPG, it is insignificant in terms of urban residents' spending on charcoal. These findings suggest that different programs and policies may be necessary for (1) households that already use modern cooking fuels and those that do not and (2) households in urban and rural areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ghana's energy intensity trends point to a high energy use necessary to generate a unit of output. The country has also witnessed massive investment in energy infrastructure geared towards meeting its lower middle-income status and achieving universal access to energy. The logical question is: what is the contribution of the current economic and technical infrastructure level to the country's energy intensity? The current study addresses this question by employing the Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index I (LMDI) to decompose energy intensity in Ghana from 2000 to 2020 to examine its trends and sources. The impact of economic-technical factors on aggregate energy intensity in Ghana is then investigated with the aid of the ARDL estimation technique to unearth potential asymmetric and symmetric effects. The decomposition analysis indicates an oscillating pattern in energy intensity in Ghana promoted by structural effect and labour productivity respectively. The results suggest that renewable energy, rural electrification, and digitisation have a direct and secondary long-run asymmetric effect on aggregate energy intensity with labour productivity and household consumption working as the transmission channels. The study recommends the need for government to pursue clean and eco-friendly practices in its economic development agenda for a meaningful reduction in energy intensity. • We examined Ghana's energy intensity trends and decomposed the energy intensity sources using the LMDI 1 method. • We further examined the contribution of economic and technical factors to energy intensity using the linear and nonlinear ARDL. • Energy intensity in Ghana is promoted by the energy cost accrued in value-added production relative to structural and intensity effects. • Renewable energy, rural electrification, and digitisation have a direct and secondary long run asymmetric effect on aggregate energy intensity with labour productivity and household consumption working as the transmission channels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]