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In-situ measurements by several spacecraft have revealed that the solar wind is frequently perturbed by transient structures (magnetic folds, jets, waves, flux-ropes) that propagate rapidly away from the Sun over large distances. Parker Solar Probe has detected frequent rotations of the magnetic field vector at small heliocentric distances, accompanied by surprisingly large solar wind rotation rates. The physical origin of such magnetic field bends, the conditions for their survival across the interplanetary space, and their relation to solar wind rotation are yet to be clearly understood. We traced measured solar wind flows from the spacecraft position down to the surface of the Sun to identify their potential source regions and used a global MHD model of the corona and solar wind to relate them to the rotational state of the low solar corona. We identified regions of the solar corona for which solar wind speed and rotational shear are important and long-lived, that can be favourable to the development of magnetic deflections and to their propagation across extended heights in the solar wind. We show that coronal rotation is highly structured and that enhanced flow shear develops near the boundaries between coronal holes and streamers, around and above pseudo-streamers, even when such boundaries are aligned with the direction of solar rotation. A large fraction of the switchbacks identified by PSP map back to these regions, both in terms of instantaneous magnetic field connectivity and of the trajectories of wind streams that reach the spacecraft. These regions of strong shears are likely to leave an imprint on the solar wind over large distances and to increase the transverse speed variability in the slow solar wind. The simulations and connectivity analysis suggest they can be a source of the switchbacks and spikes observed by Parker Solar Probe., Comment: Accepted for publication in Astronomy & Astrophysics

The solar rotation period is the most prominent mid-term periodicity in the temporal behaviour of solar, heliospheric, and geomagnetic parameters. It is also a cause of the repeatedly appearing geomagnetic storms originating from the corotating interaction regions (CIRs). Since geomagnetic CIR-driven storms have a natural periodic character, and geomagnetic storms impact energy infrastructure via geomagnetically induced currents, it is of interest whether this periodic character is also noticeable in the temporal behaviour of electrical-grid failures (EGFs), which, at least to some extent, might be of solar origin.

Properties of helioseismic acoustic oscillations (p modes) are modified by flows and magnetic fields in the solar interior, with frequencies, amplitudes and damping rates all varying systematically through the solar cycle. Crucially, now, we have a long enough baseline of helioseismic data to compare of the different activity cycles. We review recent efforts along these lines, from the impact of near-surface magnetic fields on p-mode frequencies to the evolution of the torsional oscillation and meridional circulation. We show that each activity cycle for which we have helioseismic data is slightly different in terms of the relationship between p mode frequencies and atmospheric proxies of activity, and in terms of the rotation and meridional circulation flows. However, many challenges remain, crucially including our ability to constrain flows and magnetic fields in the deep solar interior.

The delayed ionospheric response is analyzed for two well‐defined 27‐day solar rotation periods in the year 2019 with solar radio flux index F10.7 and Global‐scale Observations of the Limb and Disk (GOLD) data, like solar extreme ultraviolet (EUV) flux proxy, O/N2 column density ratio and peak electron density, as well as International Global Navigation Satellite System Service rapid high‐rate total electron content (TEC) map data. Although the correlation between GOLD solar EUV flux proxy and TEC is similar to the correlation between F10.7 and TEC, it is shown that the estimated delays based on GOLD data are in much better agreement with recent studies using EUV measurements compared to the delays based on F10.7 data. The GOLD peak electron density correlates well with TEC and allows insight to a local time interval when the ionosphere is not controlled by solar activity changes (17:00 LT to 21:00 LT). The present study investigates the impact of the solar activity (F10.7, GOLD EUV flux proxy) and O/N2 column density ratio on the ionospheric delay for two representative solar rotation periods. The capabilities of GOLD data for future research on the ionospheric response to the 27‐day solar rotation period are demonstrated and discussed. These results are crucial information for precise ionospheric models and forecasts., Key Points: The good correlation of Global‐scale Observations of the Limb and Disk (GOLD) extreme ultraviolet (EUV) proxy and GOLD peak electron density with total electron content (TEC) allows detailed studies of the delayed ionospheric response. The ionospheric delay to the 27‐day solar rotation period based on GOLD EUV proxy and TEC confirms recent delay estimates of about 1 day. GOLD measurements at different times of the day allow insight into ionization, recombination and related accumulation processes.

Accurate measurements of the solar differential rotation parameters are necessary for understanding the solar dynamo mechanism. We use the orthogonalization process to estimate these parameters. The advantage of the orthogonalization of the data in the tracer motion statistical analysis is outlined. The differential rotation is represented in terms of various types of polynomials. We compare the quality of a set of models of the solar differential rotation using the Akaike information criterion and choose the best one. Applying the proposed method, we studied the solar differential rotation and its North-South asymmetry using observations of coronal holes. A statistical analysis of observations from the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AIA) on Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) reveals the differential rotation pattern of coronal holes and its North-South asymmetry. ispartof: Advances In Space Research vol:65 issue:7 pages:1843-1851 status: published

Two intervals of exceptionally strong recurrence of galactic cosmic ray (GCR) intensity at solar rotation period stand out in recent history, one in 2007–2008 and the other in 2014–2015. We use neutron monitor data from Oulu and Hermanus, solar wind (SW) data, and coronal images to study these intervals. We find that in both cases the source of solar rotation period recurrence was a coronal hole (CH), but CH structures were different. While a large, longitudinally asymmetric CH existed at high southern latitudes in 2014–2015, a low‐latitude CH caused the recurrence in 2007–2008. Spectral properties of GCR and SW parameters reflect these differences. In 2014–2015 the GCR power spectrum density was broad and peaked at a period of 28.9 days, longer than the simultaneous recurrence period of SW speed. In 2007–2008 the GCR power spectrum was narrow and peaked at 27.5 days, exactly the same as for SW speed. The effect of CHs to GCRs was somewhat different in the two cases because of opposite solar polarities in the two intervals. In 2014–2015, during positive polarity when GCRs drift inward from high latitudes, the convection of fast SW from CH reduces the inward GCR drift over a wide range of high heliolatitudes at certain heliolongitudes. In 2007–2008, during negative polarity when GCRs drift inward via the heliospheric current sheet, a low‐latitude CH depletes the GCR flux not only by convection but also by the deflecting heliospheric current sheet away from the ecliptic, whence GCR drift to higher latitudes in a limited longitude range.

Polar Mesospheric Cloud (PMC) observations from the Solar Occultation for Ice Experiment (SOFIE) and the Cloud Imaging and Particle Size (CIPS) experiment are used to investigate the response of PMCs to forcing associated with the 27-day solar rotation. We quantify the PMC response in terms of sensitivity values. Analysis of PMC data from 14 seasons indicate a large seasonal variability in sensitivity with both correlation and anti-correlation between PMC properties and Lyman-alpha irradiance for individual seasons. However, a superposed epoch analysis reveals the expected anti-correlation between variations in solar Lyman-alpha and variations in PMC ice water content, albedo, and frequency of occurrence. The PMC height is found to significantly correlate with 27-day variations in solar Lyman-alpha in the Southern Hemisphere (SH), but not in the Northern hemisphere (NH). Depending on instrument and property, the time lag between variations in PMC properties and solar Lyman-alpha ranges from 0 to 3 days in the NH and from 6 to 7 days in the SH. These hemispheric differences in PMC height and time lag are not understood, but it is speculated that they result from dynamical forcing that is controlled by the 27-day solar cycle.

Twenty-seven-day variation caused by solar rotation is one of the main periodic effects of solar radiation influence on the ionosphere, and there have been many studies on this periodicity using peak electron density $$\mathrm{N_{m}F_{2}}$$ and solar radio flux index F10.7. In this paper, the global electron content (GEC) and observation of Solar EUV Monitor (SEM) represent the whole ionosphere and solar EUV flux, respectively, to investigate the 27-day variation. The 27-day period components of indices $$(\hbox {GEC}_{27}$$ , $$\hbox {SEM}_{27}$$ , $$\hbox {F10.7}_{27}$$ , $$\hbox {Ap}_{27})$$ are obtained using Chebyshev band-pass filter. The comparison of regression results indicates that the index SEM has higher coherence than F10.7 with 27-day variation of the ionosphere. The regression coefficients of $$\hbox {SEM}_{27 }$$ varied from 0.6 to 1.4 and the coefficients of $$\hbox {Ap}_{27}$$ varied from $${-}$$ 0.6 to 0.3, which suggests that EUV radiation seasonal variations are the primary driver for the 27-day variations of the ionosphere for most periods. TEC map grid points on three meridians where IGS stations are dense are selected for regression, and the results show that the contribution of solar EUV radiation is positive at all geomagnetic latitudes and larger than geomagnetic activity in most latitudes. The contribution of geomagnetic activity is negative at high geomagnetic latitude, increasing with decreasing geomagnetic latitudes, and positive at low geomagnetic latitudes. The global structure of 27-day variation of ionosphere is presented and demonstrates that there are two zonal anomaly regions along with the geomagnetic latitudes lines and two peaks in the north of Southeast Asia and the Middle Pacific where $$\hbox {TEC}_{27}$$ magnitude values are notably larger than elsewhere along zonal anomaly regions.

A sliding principal component analysis (PCA) method is proposed to detect pre-earthquake ionospheric anomalies. We analyzed the precision of this new method with different length of time window in detecting the reference background total electron content (TEC). The results showed that the most suitable window length is 27 days which is consistent with the solar rotation period. We compared the precision of this new method with the sliding inter quartile range (IQR) method and the sliding average method in detecting the background TECs, and found that the precision of sliding PCA is better than those of the traditional methods in the middle and low latitudes because the detected background TEC residual errors by the sliding PCA method are less than that by the traditional methods. We adopted a more reasonable method to calculate the background value’s upper and lower bounds and then take four strong earthquakes (Qinghai earthquake, Honshu earthquake, Hotan earthquake and Nepal earthquake) as examples to prove the effectiveness of the sliding PCA method. From the detection results of the sliding PCA we found that obvious ionospheric anomalies appeared on April 1, 2010, March 8, 2011, February 2, 2014, April 11, 23, year 2015. After the further analysis of the solar-terrestrial environment and the distribution of TEC anomaly area, it can be considered that the pre-earthquake anomalies on these days before the earthquake may have a large correlation with the following earthquake. In addition, the TEC anomaly area spans largely in the longitude direction along the bound of equator anomalous zone, and the anomalous morphology has the conjugate structure. This regular can provide a valuable reference for the short-impending earthquake prediction in the future.

The solar rotational variability (27-day) signal in the Earth's middle atmosphere has been studied for several decades, as it was believed to help in the understanding of the Sun's influence on climate at longer timescales. However, all previous studies have found that this signal is very uncertain, likely due to the influence of the internal variability of the atmosphere. Here, we applied an ensemble modeling approach in order to decrease internal random variations in the modeled time series. Using a chemistry-climate model (CCM), SOCOLv3, we performed two 30-member 3-year long (2003–2005) ensemble runs: with and without a rotational component in input irradiance fluxes. We also performed similar simulations with a 1-D model, in order to demonstrate the system behavior in the absence of any dynamical feedbacks and internal perturbations. For the first time we show a clear connection between the solar rotation and the stratospheric tropical temperature time-series. We show tropical temperature and ozone signal phase lag patterns that are in agreement with those from a 1-D model. Pronounced correlation and signal phase lag patterns allow us to properly estimate ozone and temperature sensitivities to irradiance changes. While ozone sensitivity is found to be in agreement with recent sensitivities reported for the 11-year cycle, temperature sensitivity appears to be at the lowest boundary of previously reported values. Analysis of temperature reanalysis data, separate ensemble members, and modeling results without a rotational component reveals that the atmosphere can produce random internal variations with periods close to 27 days even without solar rotational forcing. These variations are likely related to tropospheric wave-forcing and complicate the extraction of the solar rotational signal from observational time-series of temperature and, to a lesser extent, of ozone. Possible ways of further improving solar rotational signal extraction are discussed.

In this paper we use wavelets and Lomb–Scargle spectral analysis techniques to investigate the changing pattern of the different harmonics of the 27-day solar rotation period of the AE (auroral electrojet) index during various phases of different solar cycles between 1960 and 2014. Previous investigations have revealed that the solar minimum of cycles 23–24 exhibited strong 13.5- and 9.0-day recurrence in geomagnetic data in comparison to the usual dominant 27.0-day synodic solar rotation period. Daily mean AE indices are utilized to show how several harmonics of the 27-day recurrent period change during every solar cycle subject to a 95 % confidence rule by performing a wavelet analysis of each individual year's AE indices. Results show that particularly during the solar minimum of 23–24 during 2008 the 27-day period is no longer detectable above the 95 % confidence level. During this interval geomagnetic activity is now dominated by the second (13.5-day) and third (9.0-day) harmonics. A Pearson correlation analysis between AE and various spherical harmonic coefficients describing the solar magnetic field during each Carrington rotation period confirms that the solar dynamo has been dominated by an unusual combination of sectorial harmonic structure during 23–24, which can be responsible for the observed anomalously low solar activity. These findings clearly show that, during the unusual low-activity interval of 2008, auroral geomagnetic activity was predominantly driven by high-speed solar wind streams originating from multiple low-latitude coronal holes distributed at regular solar longitude intervals.

In this paper we analyze a small collection of sunspot drawings made at the Astronomical Observatory of the Spanish Navy in the period from April 1, 1884 to August 18, 1884. We calculate the area and the heliographic coordinates of the observed sunspots. From these coordinates, we obtain the solar rotation rate in this period. Finally, we compare our results with the data recorded by the Royal Greenwich Observatory.

The spatio-temporal variations in ionospheric vertical total electron content (TEC) data, which often reflect their scale invariant properties, can well be studied with multifractal analysis. We discuss the multifractal behaviour of TEC recorded at a total of 27 stations confined to a narrow longitude band (35 degrees W-80 degrees W) spanning from equator to high-latitude regions (30 degrees S to 80 degrees N) (geographic coordinates) during solar minimum (2008) and solar maximum (2014), using multifractal detrended fluctuation analysis (MFDFA). MFDFA provides an understanding of the multifractal scaling behaviour of a signal using the multifractal singularity spectra and the generalised Hurst exponents as diagnostic tools. The objectives of this study are to (i) understand the latitudinal dependence of the multifractal behaviour of TEC, (ii) compare the multifractal behaviour of TEC corresponding to the well-known 27-day variation (solar rotation period) and its harmonics and the 1-day (solar diurnal) periodicities, during 2008 and 2014 and (iii) understand the lunar tidal influence on TEC. Results indicate that except for the 1-day period, the TEC at all other periods shows a higher degree of multifractality during solar maximum compared to solar minimum. Further, irrespective of the solar activity, the degree of mutifractality in general decreases with increase in period for all latitude zones for periods of 27-day and its harmonics. However, the 1-day period exhibits monofractal behaviour regardless of the solar activity. The influence of semi lunar tidal effects (having a periodicity of about 14.5 days) as a function of latitude is clearly seen in the 13.5 day periodicity (i.e., the 2nd harmonic of 27-day variation) of TEC. It manifests in the form of decreasing differences in the widths of the multifractal singularity spectra corresponding to the years 2008 and 2014, with increase in latitude. Results are discussed in the light of these observations.

Using the subsurface flow maps obtained from the HMI time–distance data-analysis pipeline, I examine the temporal evolution of torsional oscillation, meridional flow, and long-living large-scale structures in high-latitude areas. During the 5.5-year analysis period, both the torsional oscillation and meridional flow show strong hemispheric asymmetry while persisting the converging-flow patterns toward the activity belts. Meanwhile, for both hemispheres in the mid-latitude zone, the meridional-flow speed shows an anti-correlation with the magnetic flux being transported toward the pole, slowing down (speeding up) when following-polarity (leading-polarity) magnetic flux is transported. In the latitudinal band studied, the meridional-flow speed and magnetic field remained relatively unchanged from 2012 through 2015 in the northern hemisphere, but varied substantially during the same period in the southern hemisphere. Long-living large-scale structures, characterized by their low zonal speed, are observed in high-latitude areas, but the nature and cause of these structures are unknown.

In this paper we carry out a comparative study of the daytime (7–18 LT) behavior of the near-equatorial ionospheric F region at the end of the long deep solar minimum (2009) with respect to that of the previous normal solar minimum (1995) in the Indian longitude sector using ionosonde observations of F layer parameters, radar observations of E × B drift, and the IRI-2012 (International Reference Ionosphere-2012) model. We investigate the F2 and F3 layer behaviors separately. The results reveal that the peak frequencies of the F layer (fpeak), F2 layer (foF2), and F3 layer (foF3) in 2009 are consistently lower than those in 1995. Maximum difference in fpeak/foF2/foF3 between 2009 and 1995 observations is found in the equinoxes followed by winter and summer. The annual mean, seasonal mean, and 10 day mean peak electron density (corresponding to fpeak) in 2009 were lower than those in 1995 by as much as 34%, 46%, and 65%, respectively. Solar rotation effect is less conspicuous in 2009 than in 1995, consistent with the solar rotation signature in F10.7. Observations also show considerable amount of equinoctial asymmetry in electron density, which is found to be closely linked with the corresponding asymmetry in the vertical E × B drift. Seasonal mean peak electron densities of the F layer (corresponding to fpeak) and the F2 layer (corresponding to foF2) observed during the deep solar minimum of 2009 were smaller than those corresponding to IRI-2012 model foF2 by as much as 45% and 50%, respectively, underlining the need to incorporate the data collected during the long deep minimum in the IRI model. The unusually weak ionosphere observed in 2009 is discussed in terms of the direct effect of the low solar EUV flux in 2009 as compared to 1995 and its indirect effects on ionospheric electric field, thermospheric composition (or O/N2 ratio), and thermospheric neutral winds.

Daily NO number density, retrieved from measurements of the Scanning Imaging Absorption Spectrometer for Atmospheric Chartography (SCIAMACHY) from 2002 to 2012 for polar summer in the mesosphere, is used to investigate the response of NO to geomagnetic activity, as expressed by the auroral electrojet (AE) index. Applying the superposed epoch analysis, we observe a clear response of NO to strong geomagnetic forcing at geomagnetic latitudes 55–75 ∘ N/S and altitudes above 66 km. The 27 day solar rotation cycle is observed, indicating that some of the observed geomagnetic events are related to solar coronal holes. We find a linear relationship between anomalies of AE and NO at geomagnetic latitudes 55–70 ∘ N/S and 70–74 km altitude. A clear auroral oval-like structure is observed on days of strong geomagnetic forcing in both hemispheres, with small longitudinal inhomogeneities, which might be related to the South Atlantic Anomaly or the magnetic local time. The NO lifetime and production rate per AE anomaly has been derived from a least squares fit to the observations. Comparisons of results from a simple model using this empirical NO production and a lifetime varying from 1.2 days in summer to 10 days in winter to SCIAMACHY observations show good agreement. In particular, the strength and interannual variability of the wintertime maximum is well captured. This suggests that direct production of NO in the upper mesosphere above 72 km contributes substantially to the so-called energetic particle precipitation indirect effect.

We present an analysis of 23 years of thermal plasma measurements in the topside ionosphere from the DMSP spacecraft. The H+/O+ ratio and density vary dramatically with the solar cycle; cross-correlation coefficients between E10.7 and the daily averaged densities are greater than 0.85. The ionospheric parameters also vary dramatically with season, particularly at latitudes away from the equator where the solar zenith angle varies greatly with season. There are also 27-day solar rotation periodicities in the density, associated with periodicities in the directly-measured solar EUV flux. Empirical Orthogonal Function (EOF) analysis captures over 95% of the variation in the density in the first two principal components. The first principal component (PC1) is clearly associated with the solar EUV while the second principal component (PC2) is clearly associated with the SZA variation. The magnitude of the variation of the response of the topside ionosphere to solar EUV variability is shown to be closely related to the ionospheric composition. This is interpreted as the result of the effect of composition on the scale height in the topside ionosphere and the "pivot effect" in which the variation in density near the F2 peak is amplified by a factor of e at an altitude a scale height above the F2 peak. When the topside ionosphere is H+ dominated during solar minimum, DMSP may be much less than a scale height above the F2 peak while during solar maximum , when it is O+ dominated, DMSP may be several scale heights above the F2 peak.

The Mg II index is usually used to represent the brightening contribution to total solar irradiance (TSI) by solar bright structures, such as faculae and network. In order to understand variations of TSI, phase relations of TSI and the chromospheric Mg II index is investigated on time-scales of one year and longer. The NOAA daily Mg II index at the time interval of November 17, 1978–October 24, 2007 is utilized to carry out correlation analyses respectively with the daily ACRIM and PMOD composites of TSI. The Mg II index is found to lead TSI by about one solar rotation period for time-scales of one year and longer. Correlation of TSI with the Mg II index on the time-scale of one year is sometimes significantly positive, sometimes statistically insignificant, and sometimes even significantly negative. When sunspot darkening is dominant, the correlation between TSI and Mg II is either negative or not significant. When TSI is backward shifted vs the Mg II index by about one rotation period, correlation between them becomes significantly positive in all years. Thus, it is after about one rotation period that a more prominent intensification is inferred to be contributed to TSI than that immediately, by bright constructions, which is represented by the Mg II index. We propose an explanation for the phase relationship of TSI and the Mg II index.

The pattern of migrating zonal flow bands associated with the solar cycle, known as the torsional oscillation, has been monitored with continuous global helioseismic observations by the Global Oscillations Network Group, together with those made by the Michelson Doppler Imager onboard the Solar and Heliosepheric Observatory and its successor the Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager onboard the Solar Dynamics Observatory, since 1995, giving us nearly two full solar cycles of observations. We report that the flows now show traces of the mid-latitude acceleration that is expected to become the main equatorward-moving branch of the zonal flow pattern for Cycle 25. Based on the current position of this branch, we speculate that the onset of widespread activity for Cycle 25 is unlikely to be earlier than the middle of 2019., Comment: 8 pages, 5 figures, accepted by ApJL 5 July 2018

The Mars thermosphere holds clues to the evolution of the Martian climate, and has practical implications for spacecraft visiting Mars, which often use it for aerobraking upon arrival, or for landers, which must pass through it. Nevertheless, it has been sparsely characterized, even when past accelerometer measurements and remote observations are taken into account. The Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN (MAVEN) orbiter, which includes a number of instruments designed to characterize the thermosphere, has greatly expanded the available thermospheric observations. This paper presents new and unanticipated measurements of density and temperature profiles (120-200 km) derived from solar occultations using the MAVEN Extreme Ultraviolet (EUV) Monitor. These new measurements complement and expand MAVEN's intended thermospheric measurement capacity. In particular, because the local-time is inherently fixed to the terminator, solar occultations are ideally suited for characterizing long-term and latitudinal variability. Occultation measurements are made during approximately half of all orbits, resulting in thousands of new thermospheric profiles. The density retrieval method is presented in detail, including an uncertainty analysis. Altitude-latitude maps of thermospheric density and temperature at perihelion and aphelion are presented, revealing structures that have not been previously observed. Tracers of atmospheric dynamics are also observed, including a high altitude polar warming feature at intermediate latitudes, and an apparent thermostatic response to solar EUV heating during a solar rotation, which shows heating at high altitudes that is accompanied by cooling at lower altitudes., Comment: Submitted to JGR: Planets

In this paper we research the relationship between solar activity and the weather on Earth. This research is based on the assumption that every ejection of magnetic field energy and particles from the Sun (also known as Solar wind) has direct effects on the Earth’s weather. The impact of coronal holes and active regions on cold air advection (cold fronts, precipitation, and temperature decrease on the surface and higher layers) in the Belgrade region (Serbia) was analyzed. Some active regions and coronal holes appear to be in a geo-effective position nearly every 27 days, which is the duration of a solar rotation. A similar period of repetitiveness (27–29 days) of the passage of the cold front, and maximum and minimum temperatures measured at surface and at levels of 850 and 500 hPa were detected. We found that 10–12 days after Solar wind velocity starts significantly increasing, we could expect the passage of a cold front. After eight days, the maximum temperatures in the Belgrade region are measured, and it was found that their minimum values appear after 12–16 days. The maximum amount of precipitation occurs 14 days after Solar wind is observed. A recurring period of nearly 27 days of different phases of development for hurricanes Katrina, Rita and Wilma was found. This analysis confirmed that the intervals of time between two occurrences of some particular meteorological parameter correlate well with Solar wind and A index.

High speed solar wind streams (HSSs) are very efficient drivers of geomagnetic activity at high latitudes. In this paper we use a recently developed $\Delta{H}$ parameter of geomagnetic activity, calculated from the night-side hourly magnetic field measurements of the Sodankyl\"a observatory, as a proxy for solar wind (SW) speed at monthly time resolution in 1914-2014 (solar cycles 15-24). The seasonal variation in the relation between monthly $\Delta{H}$ and solar wind speed is taken into account by calculating separate regressions between $\Delta{H}$ and SW speed for each month. Thereby, we obtain a homogeneous series of proxy values for monthly solar wind speed for the last 100 years. We find that the strongest HSS-active months of each solar cycle occur in the declining phase, in years 1919, 1930, 1941, 1952, 1959, 1973, 1982, 1994 and 2003. Practically all these years are the same or adjacent to the years of annual maximum solar wind speeds. This implies that the most persistent coronal holes, lasting for several solar rotations and leading to the highest annual SW speeds, are also the sources of the highest monthly SW speeds. Accordingly, during the last 100 years, there were no coronal holes of short duration (of about one solar rotation) that would produce faster monthly (or solar rotation) averaged solar wind than the most long-living coronal holes in each solar cycle produce.

Prolonged variations in the duration of the Schwabe-Wolf (∼11 years) and Suess (∼200 years) cycles have been analyzed using different experimental data. It was shown that the duration of the Schwabe-Wolf cycle on a 2000-year time scale varied monotonically (on average, increasing) and cyclically (with a period of several hundred years); periods of 10.4, 11.0, and 11.4 years predominate on the occurrence frequency histogram. The Suess cycle duration was 200–290 years during the Holocene and tended to increase in the past. This was accompanied by cyclic variations with a period of 2300–2500 years corresponding to the Hallstatt cycle. Arguments for the assumption that the Suess cycle duration decreased by a factor of more than 1.5 over the past half billion years are presented. This may indicate that the solar rotation characteristics and convection zone parameters varied on long time scales during the Sun’s evolution on the main sequence.

We present a detailed investigation of the solar rotation effects on the Martian high-latitude (~63°N–81°N) ionosphere using the electron density (Ne) data measured by Mars Global Surveyor and solar XUV and EUV fluxes measured by SOHO under high (2000–2001), medium (2003), and low (2005) solar activity conditions. A fast Fourier transform spectral analysis method is used to estimate the amplitude of the rotation period in these parameters. This method clearly reveals the presence of solar rotation effects in the Martian ionospheric Ne at all altitudes (90–220 km), peak electron density (NmM2), and total electron content under the three solar activity conditions. These effects are in phase with the solar UV fluxes (corrected for the Martian orbit). The period of rotation effect (~26 days) is the same at all altitudes, though its amplitude is strongest at the ionospheric M2 peak (~135–140 km, ~3.5–6% of the mean values) and has a secondary enhancement at the M1 peak (~110–115 km). The effect of solar rotation on the M2 peak is larger during medium solar activity (2003) than during high solar activity (2000–2001). The effect, however, is absent in the ionospheric peak height (hmM2). The rotation effects on Mars are also compared with those on the Earth. Unlike at Mars, the Earth's high-latitude ionosphere shows no clear solar rotation effect, though the effect is observed clearly at lower latitudes.

We study the relationship between energetic 120–250 keV proton fluxes and geomagnetic Ap, AE, Dxt indices using the recently corrected measurements of the MEPED instrument onboard the low-altitude NOAA/POES satellites. Corrected database spans from 1979 to present, and allows us to reliably study the long-term variation of energetic proton fluxes over several solar cycles. Contrary to uncorrected fluxes, which can be more than an order of magnitude too low, the corrected fluxes display a systematic solar cycle variation closely resembling the variation of Ap and AE indices with a maximum in the declining solar cycle phase and a minimum in solar minimum. We also find that trapped fluxes are enhanced relative to precipitating fluxes in the declining phases and solar minima. This supports the fact that high-speed solar wind streams are the most significant driver of energetic proton fluxes. We compute the correlations between fluxes and indices in a range of time scales, and show that they are significantly improved by the flux correction. We find that precipitating fluxes correlate better than trapped fluxes with Ap/AE indices at all time scales, and the highest correlation is found with Ap. For precipitating fluxes these correlations depend weakly on time scale, but for trapped fluxes the correlation significantly increases from daily scale to solar rotation and longer time scales. Comparing the fluxes to Dxt index shows a complex relationship, where the fluxes depend not only on Dxt value but also on its time derivative.

High-latitude northern hemisphere summer mesospheric gravity wave (GW) activity at PMC altitude (82–86 km) is analyzed from nine years (2007–2015) of Aeronomy of Ice in the Mesosphere (AIM) satellite observation. GW activity is characterized in terms of potential energy per unit mass. A new method is proposed to convert the Ice Water Content (IWC) in Polar Mesospheric Cloud (PMC) observed by the Cloud Imaging and Particle Size (CIPS) experiment on the AIM satellite to temperature using a simple model. These are used with temperatures from the Solar Occultation for Ice Experiment (SOFIE, also onboard the AIM), to derive daily averaged GW potential energy in the northern hemisphere summer. July monthly averaged GW potential energy indicates no relation to the 11-year solar cycle. Daily averaged values indicate a large variability in the 27-day GW oscillation, with positive, negative or no correlation with the 27-day solar rotation during individual summer seasons. However, a superposed epoch analysis using SOFIE GW anomalies indicate a significant negative response to the 27-day solar rotation with a lag of 8–12 days. This 27-day GW response may be related to similar oscillations in the wind, but the exact cause of the 27-day signal in the GW activity is not yet understood.

For solar cycles 20 and 21 the latitudinal variations of the solar rotation rates are found using data of the H α filaments and the long-lived magnetic features of negative and positive polarities. Analysis of the data showed that: (a) there is N–S asymmetry in the equatorial rotation of the H α filaments and the long-lived magnetic features; (b) for both solar cycles the long-lived magnetic features of both polarities have similar behavior; (c) in the solar cycle 20 the long-lived magnetic features of both polarities vary in phase to each other but show some difference during cycle 21. For the long-lived magnetic features of positive polarity the confidence level is lower than for those of negative one.

Using calculations of the magnetic field in the solar atmosphere in the potential approximation, it is shown that, (1) as distance R from the Sun’s center grows, the area of the positive magnetic field (S+field) in 10-deg latitude zones tends to 100% (0%) in the neighborhood of the solar minimum. At the distance R = 2.5R⊙(R⊙ is the solar radius), these values of the positive field are observed during ≈(12–55) Carrington rotations (CRs) for solar minima between neighboring cycles; (2) polar magnetic field reversals can occur repeatedly. Note that a polar reversal at large heights ends by 6–16 Carrington rotations earlier than on the Sun’s surface. On the Sun’s surface, a field polar reversal begins earlier at lower latitudes than at high ones; (3) for each longitude at different Rs and separately for each solar hemisphere the radial component of the field was averaged on synoptic maps in the 0°–40° latitude range. It is established that the TR rotation periods of the boundaries between the sectors (areas of longitudes with the same sign of the averaged field) can be shorter than, longer than, and equal to Carrington solar rotation period TCR. It turned out that boundaries with TR TCR are observed at relatively small heights.

The dynamics of the absolute global values (Φ) of the large-scale open solar magnetic field (LOSMF) fluxes at an interval of one solar rotation in 2006–2012 has been studied based on the Wilcox Solar Observatory data and using the ISOPAK original package for modeling the solar magnetic field. The reference points and the duration of the final quasi-biennial interval in cycle 23 (January 2006–May 2007; 17 months) and the phases of the cycle 24 minimum (May 2007–November 2009; 30 months), growth (November 2009–May 2012; 30 months), and the beginning of the maximum (May 2012–January 2013) have been determined. It has been indicated that the absolute values (Φ) decreased sharply at the beginning of the minimum, growth, and the maximum phases to ∼(2, 1.25, 0.75) × 1022 Mx, respectively. During the entire minimum phase, LOSMF corotated super-quasi-rigidly westward in the direction of solar rotation; at the beginning of the growth phase, this field started corotating mostly eastward. The LOSMF polarity reversal in the current cycle 24 started in May–June 2012 (CR 2123–2124), when fields of southern polarity rushed from the Sun’s southern hemisphere toward the north. The statement that the solar cycle is a continuous series of quasi-biennial LOSMF intervals is confirmed. In particular, the minimum and growth phases are characterized by opposite LOSMF rotation directions, i.e., super-quasi-rigid corotation (twisting) and detwisting, with identical duration at least in cycle 24.

[1] We describe the Mars ionosphere with unprecedented detail in 3-D, as simulated by a Mars general circulation model (the Laboratoire de Meteorologie Dynamique Mars GCM), and compare it with recent measurements. The model includes a number of recent extensions and improvements. Different simulations for a full Martian year have been performed. The electron density at the main ionospheric peak is shown to vary with the Sun-Mars distance and with the solar variability, both in the long-term (11 year solar cycle) and on shorter temporal scales (solar rotation). The main electronic peak is shown to be located at the same pressure level during all the Martian year. As a consequence, its altitude varies with latitude, local time, and season according to the natural expansions and fluctuations of the neutral atmosphere, in agreement with previous models. The model predicts a nighttime ionosphere due only to photochemistry. The simulated ionosphere close to the evening terminator is in agreement with observations. No effort has been made to explain the patchy ionosphere observed in the deep nightside. We have compared the modeled ionosphere with Mars Global Surveyor and Mars Advanced Radar for Subsurface and Ionosphere Sounding data. The model reproduces the solar zenith angle variability of the electron density and the altitude of the peak, although it underestimates the electron density at the main peak by about 20%. The electron density at the secondary peak is strongly underestimated by the model, probably due to a very crude representation of the X-ray solar flux. This is one of the aspects that needs a revision in future versions of the model.

We show that the amplitudes of the 27-day variations of galactic cosmic ray (GCR) intensity, solar wind and solar activity parameters have a periodicity with duration of three to four Carrington rotation periods (3–4 CRP). We assume that the general reason for this phenomenon may be related to similar cyclicity of topological structure of the solar magnetic field lines created owing to the asymmetry of turbulent solar dynamo and solar differential rotation transforming the Sun’s poloidal magnetic field to the toroidal (α–ω effect), and vice versa.

The E-region wind dynamo is a key linkage in atmosphere-ionosphere coupling, but relatively little is known about variability of the corresponding E-region currents in terms of connections with atmosphere dynamics. In this paper we analyze ground magnetic variations ΔB during 2009 at two mid-latitude stations to reveal planetary-wave (PW) periodicities near those of well-known atmospheric normal modes, i.e., 5, 10 and 16 days. In the neutral atmosphere these waves are westward-propagating with zonal wavenumber s = 1. The two stations are at the same magnetic latitude and are nearly conjugate in longitude, which leads to following new insights: First, the amplitude and phase variations between the two stations do not conform to simple westward-propagating waves with zonal wavenumber s = 1, implying that the underlying physics is more complex, in part due to modulation by the predominantly s= 1 longitude-dependent magnetic field. There is also compelling evidence that much ΔB variability near PW periods arises through the product of solar-controlled conductivity and PW-related electric field in the expression for electric current, mainly arising from solar radiation periodicities longer than the solar rotation period. For instance, interactions between solar periodicities in conductivity near 53d and 83d and PW periodicities in total electric field yield secondary peaks in the ΔB spectrum that contribute to its variability at periods less than 20d. In fact, most of the observed ΔB variability arises from these two latter sources, rather than directly from the original driving PW oscillations.

Many studies investigated solar–terrestrial responses (thermal state, O3, OH, H2O) with emphasis on the tropical upper atmosphere. In this paper the focus is switched to water vapor in the mesosphere at a mid-latitudinal location. Eight years of water vapor profile measurements above Bern ( 46.88 ° N / 7.46 ° E ) are investigated to study oscillations with the focus on periods between 10 and 50 days. Different spectral analyses revealed prominent features in the 27-day oscillation band, which are enhanced in the upper mesosphere (above 0.1 hPa , ∼ 64 km ) during the rising sunspot activity of solar cycle 24. Local as well as zonal mean Aura MLS observations support these results by showing a similar behavior. The relationship between mesospheric water and the solar Lyman-α flux is studied by comparing the similarity of their temporal oscillations. The H2O oscillation is negatively correlated to solar Lyman-α oscillation with a correlation coefficient of up to − 0.3 to − 0.4 , and the phase lag is 6–10 days at 0.04 hPa . The confidence level of the correlation is ≥ 99 % . This finding supports the assumption that the 27-day oscillation in Lyman-α causes a periodical photodissociation loss in mesospheric water. Wavelet power spectra, cross-wavelet transform and wavelet coherence analysis (WTC) complete our study. More periods of high common wavelet power of H2O and solar Lyman-α are present when amplitudes of the Lyman-α flux increase. Since this is not a measure of physical correlation a more detailed view on WTC is necessary, where significant (two sigma level) correlations occur intermittently in the 27 and 13-day band with variable phase lock behavior. Large Lyman-α oscillations appeared after the solar superstorm in July 2012 and the H2O oscillations show a well pronounced anti-correlation. The competition between advective transport and photodissociation loss of mesospheric water vapor may explain the sometimes variable phase relationship of mesospheric H2O and solar Lyman-α oscillations. Generally, the WTC analysis indicates that solar variability causes observable photochemical and dynamical processes in the mid-latitude mesosphere.

Galactic cosmic rays entering the heliosphere are modulated by solar wind plasma and the associated magnetic field. Solar wind parameters (solar wind speed, plasma density and interplanetary magnetic field) and galactic cosmic ray intensity during solar cycle 23 have been analyzed using wavelet analysis. The global wavelet spectrum of these parameters shows the existence of a variety of prominent short- and mid-term periodicities. The well known one-solar rotation (∼27 days) periodicity is observed in all the considered parameters, while few fluctuations less than one-solar rotation (∼9 and ∼14 days) are observed only in solar parameters. Annual, semi-annual and tri-annual variations are found in the interplanetary magnetic field and a periodicity of ∼200 days is observed in plasma speed and density. Few additional mid-term periodicities, ∼99 days and ∼1.7 years in plasma speed, ∼75 days and ∼1.4 years in plasma density are also observed. In cosmic ray data, in addition to one solar rotation (∼27 days) periodicity, we observed ∼66 days, ∼140 days, ∼260 days and ∼1.3 years periodicities. Our results also show that the temporal behaviors of short-term periodicities of these parameters are almost uniform throughout the cycle length while it is quite different in variations as well as in amplitudes for mid-term fluctuations.

Solar interior differential rotation and meridional flow play important roles in dynamo models. In this review, I briefly review results in interior rotational profiles and zonal flows obtained from helioseismology studies. Due to the new developments in recent years in interior meridional flow studies, this review focuses more on results on meridional flow. I describe new developments in the shallower poleward meridional flow, and the temporal evolution of these flows. Then I introduce a newly identified center-to-limb variation effect in helioseismology studies, and present recent results in the search of equatorward meridional flows. I also discuss how these results will effect the dynamo models.

In this study we perform a continuous Morlet wavelet transform method in time series of secondary cosmic rays and 1 AU interplanetary medium parameters for the interval from October 2001 to October 2002. The near 13.5-day periodicity was obtained during late 2001, and it was remarkable for muon data. Even though some works have pointed out that the main activations of the 13.5 day recurrence in near-Earth solar wind are related, e.g., with the heliosheet crossings or to the occurrence at 1 AU of two high speed streams approximately 180° apart in solar longitude per solar rotation, we aim to show that the period of about half the solar rotation during the end months of 2001 present in muon time series was apparently due to the occurrence of non-recurrent interplanetary disturbances. The interconnections among successive Forbush decreases, recovery phases and gradual muon depressions (associated with corotating interaction regions) seem to play an important role in such 13.5-day periodicity.

Long-term observations of polar mesosphere summer echoes (PMSE) from 2002 to 2012 are investigated with the aim to statistically study the effects of solar thermal migrating and lunar gravitational tides on aerosol layers and their environment at altitudes 80–90 km. The solar and lunar tidal periodicities are clearly present in PMSE data. For the first time, both amplitudes and phases of solar and lunar tides are estimated using PMSE data from the ESRAD radar located at Esrange (Sweden). The diurnal, semidiurnal, and terdiurnal solar migrating tides show pronounced periodicities in the PMSE strength and wind velocity components. Lunar tides demonstrate clear oscillations in the PMSE strength and wind velocities as well. “canonical” lunar gravitational tides, corresponding to the lunar gravitational potential, produce rather large amplitudes and are comparable to the solar thermal tides, whereas “noncanonical” lunar oscillations have minor effects on PMSE layers, but are still statistically significant. The influence of diurnal/semidiurnal tides and monthly/semimonthly tidal components is studied separately. Our estimations of solar thermal and lunar tidal amplitudes are in good agreement with those of previous model and experimental studies. A new mechanism of quadratic demodulation of the solar semidiurnal and lunar semidiurnal tides is shown to be valid at the summer mesopause and can explain periodical PMSE oscillations due to the lunar synodic semimonthly tide with period of 14.77 days. Two harmonics with periods of 27.0 and 13.5 days supposedly representing the solar rotation cycle are also clearly present in PMSE data.

The sunspot number (SSN), 10.7 cm radio flux (F10.7), MgII index, and SOHO/SEM EUV flux have been studied, using wavelet analysis, in order to describe how the first three parameters are related to EUV on scales of days to years. The wavelet transform decomposes the time series into series which captures variability on different temporal scales. The three proxies show weak correlation on time scales of days, thus they are of limited use in space weather when the day-to-day variability is considered. However, the underlying modulation due to the solar rotation and the solar activity cycle is so strong that there is a big influence on the daily values. Both F10.7 and MgII show a more persistent increase in correlation with scale than SSN and should be the preferred proxies. When a linear regression model is used for SEM/EUV the RMS error is about 26% lower, for the analysed period (1996–2010), for MgII compared to F10.7. However, when only the long term is considered (scale ≳ 1.4 yr) the RMS error is 20% larger when MgII is used compared to F10.7. This is caused by an offset between MgII and SEM that appears around the cycle 23 maximum. This offset is not seen between F10.7 and SEM. For space weather purposes, although none of the studied proxies works on a daily basis, the MgII index performs the best, but for the longer time scales F10.7 is the most suitable.

We examined the effect of the 11-year solar cycle and quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO) on the similar to 27-day solar rotational period detected in tropical convective cloud activity. We analyzed the data of outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) for AD1979-2004, dividing into four different cases by the combination of high and low solar activities in terms of the 11-year variation, and easterly and westerly stratospheric winds associated with QBO. As a result, similar to 27-day variation has been most significantly detected in high solar activity period around the Indo-Pacific Warm Pool. Based on correlation analysis, we find that solar rotation signal can explain 10-20% of OLR variability around the tropical warm pool region during the high solar activity period. The spatial distribution has been, however, apparently different according to the phases of QBO. It is suggested that the 11-year solar cycle and stratospheric QBO have a possibility to cause large-scale oceanic dipole phenomena. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

We simulate the time evolution of the neutral and charged species in the terrestrial middle atmosphere using a 1-D radiative-convective model with interactive neutral and ion chemistry driven by four different sets of daily spectral solar irradiance (SSI) available in the literature for the year 2000. Obtained daily time series of ozone, hydroxyl and electron densities are used to calculate their sensitivity to the short-term SSI variability at 205 nm. All applied SSI data sets possess 27-day solar rotation cycle; however, its amplitude and phase as well as the correlation between considered SSI time series differ among data sets leading to the different behavior of the atmospheric response. Contrary, the ozone and hydroxyl sensitivities to the SSI changes during solar rotation cycle are almost identical for all applied SSI data sets in the stratosphere. In the mesosphere, the difference in correlation between SSI in Herzberg continuum and Lyman-α line in considered SSI data sets leads to substantial scatter of the sensitivity estimates based on 205 nm. Our results show that for the sensitivity analysis in the stratosphere based on the SSI at 205 nm any considered SSI data sets can be applied. For the mesosphere, where the sensitivity strongly varies among applied SSI data sets more robust results can be obtained using the sensitivity calculations based on the SSI in Lyman-α line.

In order to learn the nature of coronal holes for a long period, magnetic disturbances represented by the geomagnetic index C9 (though proxy for coronal holes) for the period from 1884 to 2002 are examined, selecting only those that recur every 27 days during at least six solar rotation periods and separating the rising and declining phases, and also distinguishing one and two coronal holes in one solar rotation. It was found that the occurrence of coronal holes per year (N) during both the rising and the declining phases tends to be more frequent for greater numbers of the peak value of sunspots (R) in each sunspot cycle. The frequency per year is about twice as large for the declining phase as for the rising phase. The N–R relationship is 0.0080R+0.302 for the rising phase and 0.0152R+0.203 for the declining phase.

The possible role of magnetorotational instability (MRI) and its driven magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) turbulence in the solar interior is studied on the basis of linear and non-linear theories coupled with physical parameters, assuming a solar rotation profile inverted from helioseismic observations and a standard model for the internal structure of the Sun. We find that the location of MRI is confined to the higher latitude tachocline and lower latitude near-surface shear layer. It is especially interesting that the MRI-active region around the tachocline closely overlaps with the area indicating a steep entropy rise, which is required from the thermal wind balance in the Sun. This suggests that the MRI-driven turbulence plays a crucial role in maintaining the thermal wind balance in the Sun via the exceptional turbulent heating and equatorward angular momentum transport. The warm pole existing around the tachocline might be a natural outcome of the turbulent activities energized by the MRI.

A more detailed scenario of one stage (August–November 2004) of the quasibiennial MHD process “Origination ... and dissipation of the four-sector structure of the solar magnetic field” during the decline phase of cycle 23 has been constructed. It has been indicated that the following working hypothesis on the propagation of an MHD disturbance westward (in the direction of solar rotation) and eastward (toward the zone of active longitudes) with the displacement of the large-scale open solar magnetic field (LOSMF) from this zone can be constructed based on LOSMF model representations and data on sunspot formation, flares, active filaments, and coronal ejections as well as on the estimated contribution of sporadic energy release to the flare luminosity and kinetic energy of ejections: (1) The “explosion” of the LOSMF singularity and the formation in the explosion zone of an anemone active region (AR), which produced the satellite sunspot formation that continued west and east of the “anemone,” represented a powerful and energy-intensive source of MHD processes at this stage. (2) This resulted in the origination of two “governing” large-scale MHD processes, which regulated various usual manifestations of solar activity: the fast LOSMF along the neutral line in the solar atmosphere, strongly affecting the zone of active longitudes, and the slow LOSMF in the outer layers of the convection zone. The fronts of these processes were identified by powerful (about 1031 erg) coronal ejections. (3) The collision of a wave reflected from the zone of active longitudes with the eastern front of the hydromagnetic impulse of the convection zone resulted in an increase in LOSMF magnetic fluxes, origination of an active sector boundary in the zone of active longitudes, shear-convergent motions, and generation and destabilization of the flare-productive AR 10696 responsible for the heliospheric storm of November 3–10, 2004.

Active regions (ARs), involved in the Halloween events during October-November 2003, were the source of unusual activity during the following solar rotation. The flares on 18-20 November 2003 that occur in the AR NOAA10501 were accompanied by coronal mass ejections associated to some particularly geoeffective magnetic clouds. Our analysis of the magnetic flux and helicity injection revealed that a new emerging bipole and consequent shearing motions continuously energized the region during its disk passage. The stored energy was eventually released through the interaction of the various systems of magnetic loops by several magnetic reconnection events. Active events on November 18 (filament eruptions and CMEs) were originated by shearing motions along a section of the filament channel that injected magnetic helicity with sign opposite to that of the AR. Two homologous flares, that occurred on November 20, were apparently triggered by different mechanisms as inferred from the flare ribbons evolution (filament eruption and CMEs). We studied in detail the behaviour of two North-South oriented filaments on November 20 2003. They merged and split following a process suggestive of 'sling-shot' reconnection between two coronal flux ropes. We successfully tested this scenario in a 3D MHD simulation that is presented in this paper. © International Astronomical Union 2011. Fil:Mandrini, C. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales; Argentina.

The dynamics of the large-scale open field and solar activity at the second stage of the MHD process, including the origination and disappearance of the four-sector structure during the decline phase of cycle 23 (the stage when the blocking field is displaced from the main zone of active longitudes), has been considered. Extremely fast changes in the scales of one of new sectors (from an extremely small sector (“singularity”) to a usual sector that originated after the uniform expansion (“explosion”) of singularity with a “kick” into the zone of active longitudes, westward motion of the MHD disturbance front in the direction of solar rotation, and formation of an active quasi-rigidly corotating sector boundary responsible for the heliospheric storm of November 2004) have been detected in the field dynamics. It has been indicated that a very powerful group of sunspots AR 10656 (which disappeared after the explosion) with an area of up to 1540 ppmh (part per million hemisphere), a considerable deficit of the external energy release, and zero geoeffectiveness in spite of the closeness to the Earth helioprojection existed within singularity. It has been assumed that the energy escaped from this group with effort owing to the interaction between coronal ejections and narrow sector walls (singularity), and a considerable part of the energy was released in the outer layers of the convective zone, as a result of which singularity exploded and this explosion was accompanied by the above effects in the large-scale field and solar activity.