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Relationship between different geomechanical and acoustic properties measured from seven laboratory tested unconsolidated natural sands with different mineralogical compositions and textures were presented. The samples were compacted in the uniaxial strain configuration from 0.5 up to 30 MPa effective stress. Each sand sample was subjected to three loading – unloading cycles to study the influence of stress reduction. Geomechanical, elastic, and acoustic parameters are different between normal compaction and overconsolidation (unloaded and reloaded). Stress path (K0) data differs between normal consolidated and overconsolidated sediments. The K0 value of approximately 0.5 is founded for most of the normal consolidated sands, but varies during unloading depending on mineral compositions and textural differences. The K0 and Overconsolidation Ratio (OCR) relation can be further simplified and can be influenced by the material compositions. K0 can be used to estimate horizontal stress for drilling applications. The relationship between acoustic velocity and geomechanical is also found to be different between loading and unloading conditions. The static moduli of the overconsolidated sands are much higher than normal consolidated sands as the deformation is small (small strain). The correlation between dynamic and static elastic moduli is stronger for an overconsolidation stage than for a normal consolidation stage. The results of this study can contribute to geomechanical and acoustic dataset which can be applied for many seismic‐geomechanics applications in shallow sands where mechanical compaction is the dominant mechanism. Effects of stress reduction on geomechanical and acoustic relationship of overconsolidated sands

This study investigates the diagenesis and reservoir quality of Upper Jurassic Sandstones of Ula Formation from the Central Graben. Petrophysical and Petrographical studies have been done on cored interval from well 2/1-6 of Ula Field. Precipitation of quartz cement is the main porosity destroying process in deeply buried, quartz-rich sandstone reservoirs of the North Sea. Quartz cement precipitates in the form of syntaxial overgrowth over detrital grain of quartz. Grain coatings, like micro-quartz and illite, are the main reasons for preservation of porosity in sandstones as they cover the grain and inhibit the quartz overgrowth. Petrographical data in this study clearly indicates that grain coatings are present in the studied samples. Micro-quartz grain coating is the most common grain coat in the Upper Jurassic Sandstones of Ula, which is generated from the transformation of siliceous sponge spicules known as Rhaxella Perforata. Clay grain coats like illite and chlorite are also present. Relation between Intergranular Volume (IGV) versus Matrix and Quartz Cementation versus Porosity have also been studied. IGV is strongly affected by mechanical compaction, grain size, grain shape, quartz, and carbonate cements. Sandstones with high amount of matrix and fine grains have high IGV as compared to coarse grains because coarse grains are compacted more when they are subjected to mechanical compaction. Grain shape also has a pronounced effect on porosity. Angular grains tend to lose porosity easier as they are subjected to stress.

Mixed deposits are sediments consisting of external clastic (epiclastic or terrigenous), intrabasinal components and pyroclastic components. The mixture, comprising variable amounts of the three components, is defined as “mixed sedimentary rocks”. The Permian Lucaogou Formation (P2l) in the Jimusar Sag of the Junggar Basin is a promising tight oil target in western China, the fine-grained mixed sedimentary rocks of which are rich in organic matter (OM) and two sweet spot intervals with relatively high porosity. However, the sediment composition, provenance and deposition environmental settings have not been studied in detail. In this study coupled chemostratigraphic-petrographic analysis were used to reconstruct their depositional environments. The results show that the fine-grained sedimentary rocks have three major sediment sources, external clastic input (terrigenous clastics), intrabasinal autochthonous to parautochthonous components (carbonates, siliceous skeletal debris and OM) and pyroclastic input. Main lithofacies include siltstone/fine sandstone, mudstone, dolomite and tuffite. The silt/sandstones were mainly sourced from rocks with calc-alkaline composition, while the tuffaceous sedimentary rocks were sourced from high-K calc-alkaline rocks. Elemental proxies suggest that the carbonate rocks were generally deposited under warm and arid conditions, whereas the fine-grained clastic sediments were deposited under relatively humid conditions. The muddy or silty tuffaceous mixed rocks were deposited under relatively reducing conditions compared with carbonates and sandstones. Variations of lithofacies and OM accumulation of different intervals reflect changing deposition environmental settings, and the frequently altered high TOC content rocks and good reservoirs are benefit for tight oil formation. The work may provide some useful insights and serve as a reference for studying other mixed fine-grained sedimentary rocks and tight oil plays in similar lacustrine basins elsewhere.

Part one of this paper reported results from experimental compaction measurements of unconsolidated natural sand samples with different mineralogical compositions and textures. The experimental setup was designed with several cycles of stress loading and unloading applied to the samples. The setup was aimed to simulate a stress condition where sediments underwent episodes of compaction, uplift and erosion. P‐wave and S‐wave velocities and corresponding petrophysical (porosity and density) properties were reported. In this second part of the paper, rock physics modelling utilizing existing rock physics models to evaluate the model validity for measured data from part one were presented. The results show that a friable sand model, which was established for normally compacted sediments is also capable of describing overconsolidated sediments. The velocity–porosity data plotted along the friable sand lines not only describe sorting deterioration, as has been traditionally explained by other studies, but also variations in pre‐consolidation stress or degree of stress release. The deviation of the overconsolidated sands away from the normal compaction trend on the VP/VS and acoustic impedance space shows that various stress paths can be predicted on this domain when utilizing rock physics templates. Fluid saturation sensitivity is found to be lower in overconsolidated sands compared to normally consolidated sands. The sensitivity decreases with increasing pre‐consolidation stress. This means detectability for four‐dimensional fluid saturation changes can be affected if sediments were pre‐stressed and unloaded. Well log data from the Barents Sea show similar patterns to the experimental sand data. The findings allow the development of better rock physics diagnostics of unloaded sediments, and the understanding of expected 4D seismic response during time‐lapse seismic monitoring of uplifted basins. The studied outcomes also reveal an insight into the friable sand model that its diagnostic value is not only for describing sorting microtextures, but also pre‐consolidation stress history. The outcome extends the model application for pre‐consolidation stress estimation, for any unconsolidated sands experiencing similar unloading stress conditions to this study.

Reservoir quality assessment was conducted from petrophysical analysis and rock physics diagnostics on 15 wells penetrating Middle Jurassic sandstone reservoir formations in different regions of the eastern Central North Sea. Seismic interpretation on available 3D and 2D seismic reflection data was utilized to map thickness variations and to draw broad correlations to structural features such as salt structures and faults. In the central Egersund Basin, the Sandnes Formation shows good reservoir properties (gross thickness = 107–147 m, N/G = 33–53%) while the Bryne Formation exhibits poorer reservoir quality (N/G

Five wells containing Lower-Middle Jurassic sandstones of Sto Formation from the Hammerfest Basin (7120/9–1, 7121/7–1), the Ringvassoy-Loppa Fault Complex (7119/12–1, 7119/12–4) and the Troms-Finnmark Fault Complex (7019/1-1) in the Barents Sea area are considered in this study. The Sto Formation sandstones contain dominantly very fine-to medium-grained quartz arenites with occasional coarse-grained sandstone layers. Feldspathic and quartz wackes are also present. The effect of compaction and exhumation on reservoir properties (porosity and permeability) and seismic property (P-wave velocity) of these sandstones have been investigated. Source of quartz cement has also been investigated. Forty polished thin sections embedded in blue epoxy were studied using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and cathodoluminiscence. Bulk mineralogy was also analysed using X-ray diffraction. The studied sandstones have experienced Cenozoic exhumation ranging between 820 and 1050 m. P-wave velocity is higher; porosities and permeabilities are lower in the western wells (7019/1-1, 7119/12–1 and 7119/12–4) compared to the eastern wells (7120/9–1 and 7121/7–1). Rock physics models and diagnostics show that the western wells are diagenetically more mature, stiffer, more compacted and more cemented than the eastern wells. These trends are attributed largely to difference in burial history from the east to the west and less to textural variations. Quartz cement is the most important authigenic mineral in these sandstones. Quartz cement in the western well (7119/12–1) is predominantly derived from clay-induced dissolution at macrostylolites whereas the eastern wells (7120/9–1 and 7121/7–1) are mostly sourced from clay-induced dissolution at grain contacts or microstylolites. While cementational porosity loss dominates in the western wells, compactional porosity loss dominates in the eastern wells. Compaction can reduce porosities down to 26% and this might be the reason for better porosity preservation and reservoir quality in the eastern wells than in the western wells.

The relationship between diagenetic evolution and reservoir quality in large-scale Middle – Late Triassic aged channel systems (up to 20 km wide) in the southwestern Barents Sea is investigated through core plug data, XRD, SEM- and modal analyses. The studied channel systems are likely sourced from the southeastern Uralide mountain range and are characterized by chemically unstable clastic sediment and well-developed, porosity-preserving chlorite coatings. Chlorite coatings occupy potential quartz nucleation sites on the framework grain surfaces and likely prevent significant chemical compaction in deeply buried sandstones. Porosity-reduction is believed to follow mechanical compaction trends of similar sandstone compositions. Modelling and prediction of porosity preservation in Middle - Late Triassic channel sandstones in the study area is therefore possible, if temperature histories and sandstone compositions are well constrained. The tidally influenced channel and fluvial-dominated channels in this study show significant variation in reservoir quality. These differences are found to be linked to amount of allogenic matrix and grain size, which significantly reduces the permeability in the tidally influenced channel. If seismic distinction between different channel types is impossible, the distribution of permeability is considered unpredictable. Chlorite coatings in the investigated channels are interpreted to be diagenetic overprints of a precursor clay phase, which appears to have a strong link to the Uralian provenance. Coating precursor emplacement likely occurs prior to significant burial, but the exact physical conditions enabling this process remain elusive without systematic laboratory and analogue studies.

Middle to late Triassic strata exposed at Edgeoya, eastern Svalbard, represents an uplifted part of the northwestern corner of the Barents Sea. This interval is characterized by a predominantly mud-dominated deltaic depositional system where rocks with petroleum reservoir potential are expected both in delta front and channelized sandstone deposits. Recent drilling campaigns into time-equivalent rocks in the Barents Sea have however been disappointing, with porosity and permeability below expectation. This study improves the current understanding of reservoir potential within depositional systems of this kind by examining the link between different depositional facies, diagenesis and their impact on reservoir quality. Five depositional facies were mapped and correlated: channel, floodplain, shallow marine, prodelta and offshore. Our study suggests that diagenetic signatures that control the quality of reservoir rocks vary systematically with these depositional facies. Mechanical compaction was the main cause of porosity destruction in the channel, shallow marine and floodplain samples, while early carbonate cementation occludes the intergranular volume in the prodelta samples. Moreover, quartz cement reduced the porosity in the shallow marine depositional facies. The estimated maximum burial temperature of 124 °C indicates burial to several km depths. Depositional settings within a deltaic to shallow marine system do not exert a strong control on the abundance of chlorite, but it does impact whether the chlorite is pore filling or grain coating and porosity preserving. Efficient chlorite coating have aided in preserving porosities up to 32% in the very well/well sorted medium to fine grained sandstones deposited by fluvial dominated channels.

The influence exerted by the linkage and growth of fault segments on the sedimentation pattern in a lacustrine rift subbasin, the northern Bonan Sag in the Jiyang Depression in the Bohai Bay Basin, is studied by integrating drilling cores, wireline logs and 3D seismic data. The NW-trending Guxi Fault formed through the linkage of three fault segments, which display a roughly en echelon arrangement in map view and are probably related to early-stage regional transtensional and slip-strike stress. Between the vertical displacement troughs of normal faults, two narrow relay ramps, attributed to the coherent fault linkage-and-growth model, formed through the linkage of the three fault segments. A relatively wide relay ramp, attributed to the isolated fault linkage-and-growth model, developed due to the linkage of the NW-trending Guxi Fault and E-W-oriented segmented Chengnan Fault. The sedimentation pattern was strongly controlled by the geometry and evolution of the relay ramps. The sediment routing system was dominated by the relay zone, and fan-delta and sublacustrine fan depositional systems developed in the early stage of relay ramp formation. Lateral breaching of the relay ramps through extensive faulting and rifting probably caused an increase in the vertical throw and resulted in deposition of a coarse-grained nearshore subaqueous fan in front of the normal faults. The relay zone that formed from the linkage of independent faults (the Chengnan and Guxi faults) is associated with a broad drainage area and fan-delta and sublacustrine fan deposits, which contain the most effective hydrocarbon reservoirs in this deeply buried setting.

This study investigates the seismic velocity anisotropy of two organic-rich shales from the Norwegian Continental Shelf. The tested organic-rich shale samples were from the Upper Jurassic Draupne and Hekkingen formations collected from two wells (16/8-3S and 7125/1-1) drilled in the central North Sea and western Barents Sea, respectively. The two tested shales are different in organic matter richness and thermal maturation, and they have experienced different burial histories. The shale core plugs were tested in a triaxial cell under controlled pore pressure. Seismic velocities (V P VP and V S VS ) were measured along different orientations with respect to layering to identify the complete tensor of the rock elastic moduli, and to investigate the velocity anisotropy as a function of increasing effective stress. The measured velocity values exhibit strong anisotropy for the two tested organic-rich shales. The anisotropy for both shales is strongest for V S VS . Seismic velocities follow an increasing trend as the effective stress increases. The anisotropy decreases somewhat with increasing consolidation, probably due to the closing of preexisting fractures and microcracks. The reduction of anisotropy is more evident for the P-wave because it decreases from 0.32 to 0.25 for the Draupne sample and from 0.28 to 0.24 for the Hekkingen sample when the vertical effective stress increases from 26 to 50 MPa. In general, the Hekkingen sample indicates slightly higher velocity values than the Draupne sample due to more compaction and lower porosity. In spite of major differences between the two shale formations in terms of organic matter content, maturity and burial history, they indicate almost the same degree of velocity anisotropy. The outcomes of this study can contribute to better imaging of organic-rich Draupne and Hekkingen shales by constraining the rock-physics properties. The reuse of this article is subject to SEG terms of use and conditions. © 2017 Society of Exploration Geophysicists

This paper part one is set out to lay primary observations of experimental compaction measurements to form the basis for rock physics modelling in paper part two. P‐ and S‐wave velocities and corresponding petrophysical (porosity and density) properties of seven unconsolidated natural sands with different mineralogical compositions and textures are reported. The samples were compacted in a uniaxial strain configuration from 0.5 up to 30 MPa effective stresses. Each sand sample was subjected to three loading cycles to study the influence of stress reduction on acoustic velocities and rock physical properties with the key focus on simulating a complex burial history with periods of uplift. Results show significant differences in rock physical properties between normal compaction and overconsolidation (unloaded and reloaded). The differences observed for total porosity, density, and P‐ and S‐wave velocities are attributed to irrecoverable permanent deformation. Microtextural differences affect petrophysical, acoustic, elastic and mechanical properties, mostly during normal consolidation but are less significant during unloading and reloading. Different pre‐consolidation stress magnitudes, stress conditions (isotropic or uniaxial) and mineral compositions do not significantly affect the change in porosity and velocities during unloading as a similar steep velocity–porosity gradient is observed. The magnitude of change in the total porosity is low compared to the associated change in P‐ and S‐wave velocities during stress release. This can be explained by the different sensitivity of the porosity and acoustic properties (velocities) to the change in stress. Stress reduction during unloading yields maximum changes in the total porosity, P‐ and S‐wave velocities of 5%, 25%, and 50%, respectively. These proportions constitute the basis for the following empirical (approximation) correlations: Δϕ ∼ ±5 ΔVP and ΔVP ∼ ±2ΔVS. The patterns observed in the experiments are similar to well log data from the Barents Sea. Applications to rock physics modelling and reservoir monitoring are reported in a companion paper.

The North Sea area has been subjected to significant erosion and subsequent deposition of sediments in the basin margin and deeper basin areas, respectively, during the late Neogene. A large amount of Cretaceous-early Quaternary sediments have been removed below the angular unconformity along the west and southwest coast of Norway and deposited in the huge North Sea Fan at the mouth of the Norwegian Channel. At the same time, a considerable thickness of early Quaternary-Paleocene sediments was also eroded towards the east in the central North Sea and subsequently deposited in the deeper basin areas to the west. This study seeks to estimate exhumation from compaction and thermal maturity based techniques by using sonic velocities of shales/carbonates and vitrinite reflectance data in a large number of boreholes in the central, eastern and northern North Sea. The results indicate no or minor exhumation in the Central Graben and flanking high areas, whereas more than ∼1 km sediments are eroded in the basin margin areas towards the Norwegian coast. More than ∼500 m sediments are eroded in the Egersund Basin and Stord Basin areas. A similarity of exhumation estimates from the Early Cretaceous-Early Miocene shales and Late Cretaceous-Early Paleocene carbonates indicates maximum burial sometime after the Early Miocene in most of the central and northern North Sea areas. However, the maximum burial throughout the North Sea Basin may be diachronous. Seismostratigraphic analysis indicates maximum burial sometime during the Oligocene in the Sorgenfrei-Tornquist Zone area in the eastern North Sea. Maximum burial in the Norwegian-Danish Basin varies from Miocene-Pliocene in eastern parts to early Pleistocene in western parts, whereas sediments are currently at their maximum burial in the Central Graben and southern Viking Graben areas. Restoration of surface elevations to their original position before the onset of erosion indicated large subaerially exposed areas in the Norwegian-Danish Basin and along the southwest coast of Norway. This is also supported by predominantly coastal and/or deltaic environments in the Norwegian-Danish Basin area during the late Neogene. These subaerially exposed areas may be linked to the regional tilting and erosion of the basin margin areas to the east and progressive basinward migration of deposition centres to the west since the Oligocene. The exhumation had significant effects on the petroleum system in the basin margin areas by cooling down the source rock. However, the deeper burial of sediments may also have changed the rheological properties of sediments from more ductile to brittle due to compaction and diagenetic processes which makes them more failure prone during exhumation leading to hydrocarbon leakage or seal failure in case of CO2 injection. Burial and exhumation history controls on shale compaction and thermal maturity along the Norwegian North Sea basin margin areas

Pore-throat size is a very crucial factor controlling the reservoir quality and oiliness of tight sandstones, which primarily affects rock-properties such as permeability and drainage capillary pressure. However, the wide range of size makes it difficult to understand their distribution characteristics as well as the specific controls on reservoir quality and oiliness. In order to better understand about pore-throat size distribution, petrographic, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), pressure-controlled mercury injection (PMI), rate-controlled mercury injection (RMI), quantitative grain fluorescence (QGF) and environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) investigations under laboratory pressure conditions were performed on a suite of tight reservoir from the fourth member of the Lower Cretaceous Quantou Formation (K 1 q 4 ) in the southern Songliao Basin, China. The sandstones in this study showed different types of pore structures: intergranular pores, dissolution pores, pores within clay aggregates and even some pores related to micro fractures. The pore-throat sizes vary from nano- to micro-scale. The PMI technique views the pore-throat size ranging from 0.001 μm to 63 μm and revealed that the pore-throats with radius larger than 1.0 μm are rare and the pore-throat size distribution curves show evident fluctuations. RMI measurements indicated that the pore size distribution characteristics of the samples with different porosity and permeability values look similar. The throat size and pore throat radius ratio distribution curves had however significant differences. The overall pore-throat size distribution of the K 1 q 4 tight sandstones was obtained with the combination of the PMI and RMI methods. The permeability is mainly contributed by a small part of larger pore-throats (less than 30%) and the ratio of the smaller pore-throats in the samples increases with decreasing permeability. Although smaller pore-throats have negligible contribution on reservoir flow potential, they are very significant for the reservoir storage capacity. The pore-throats with average radius larger than 1.0 μm mainly exist in reservoirs with permeability higher than 0.1mD. When the permeability is lower than 0.1mD, the sandstones are mainly dominated by pore-throats with average radius from 0.1 μm to 1.0 μm. The ratio of different sized pore-throats controls the permeability of the tight sandstone reservoirs in different ways. We suggest that splitting or organizing key parameters defining permeability systematically into different classes or functions can enhance the ability of formulating predictive models about permeability in tight sandstone reservoirs. The PMI combined with QGF analyses indicate that oil emplacement mainly occurred in the pore-throats with radius larger than about 0.25–0.3 μm. This result is supported by the remnant oil micro-occurrence evidence observed by SEM and ESEM.

In this study, rock physical properties and their evolution resulting from compaction processes are investigated for Mesozoic and Cenozoic mudstones and shales located in southern Viking Graben and adjacent areas within the Norwegian North Sea. The studied sediments are deposited within a progressively-subsided sedimentary basin with no major experience of exhumation events. A suite of well log data from 43 exploration wells was utilized to study the compaction behaviour of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic mudstone and shale intervals. The gamma ray log-derived shale volume (Vsh) was used to define different lithofacies and discriminate between the studied mudstones and shales. The rock properties as a function of burial depth were plotted for the identified mudstone and shale intervals. The trends could be divided into a mechanical compaction part and a chemical compaction part depending on the prevalent processes controlling the rock properties with burial depth. The transition from mechanical compaction domain to the zone of dominant chemical compaction takes place between 70 and 90 °C corresponding to a depth of 2–2.5 km. The onset of chemical compaction and cementation occurs in the same sediment found at the same depth range almost throughout the study area in spite of variable geothermal gradient indicating a lithological control on the development of chemical compaction. The degree of chemical compaction and cementation reflects the initial smectite content and the availability of potassium for the smectite to illite and quartz reaction to take place. This study contributes to the understanding of compaction processes in fine-grained siliciclastic sediments delineating the controlling factors in a region which can be regarded a natural laboratory to study compaction mechanisms due to being a subsiding basin with the extensive availability of pertrophysical data generated by hydrocarbon exploration and production activities in the area.

Development of rock physical properties in well-sorted and poorly-sorted unconsolidated mono-quartz sands and sand–clay mixtures as a function of effective stress in both dry and brine-saturated conditions is assessed in this study. The tested samples were prepared with full control on their mineralogy, grain size, grain shape, sorting, and fabric. The experiments were performed in a high-stress uniaxial oedometer up to a maximum of 30 MPa vertical effective stress. Sand–clay samples were a mixture of sand grains and clay particles (kaolinite or smectite) in different proportions. The maximum clay volume fraction used in the experiments was at most 30%. The initial bulk density of the tested sand-dominated samples was adjusted to be close to the maximum index density expected for natural sediments (sand–clay mixtures) during deposition. In pure sand samples, finer grained sand show higher initial porosity than relatively coarser grained sands.Moreover, sand–clay mixtures have lower initial porosity than pure sands. Porosity decreases as a function of increasing clay content. The poorlysorted sand samples are less compaction prone than the well-sorted sand samples. Among well-sorted sand samples, coarser grained sands are more compressible than finer grained sands. At a given effective stress level, sand–clay mixtures are more compaction prone compared with their sand component alone. Pure sands and claypoor sand–clay mixtures (either sand–kaolinite or sand–smectite) show almost the same degree of compaction when tested in both dry and brine-saturated conditions. In contrast, clay-rich sand–kaolinite and sand–smectitemixtures (clay volume >20%) are significantly more compact in brine-saturated condition. The Vp values of brinesaturated sand–kaolinite mixtures shows a positive correlation with the kaolinite content, whereas Vp starts to decrease substantially when the volume fraction of smectite exceeds 10% of the whole sand–smectite samples. Saturated bulk moduli estimated by Gassmann’s fluid substitution agree with measurements for brine-saturated clay-poor sand samples. However, the model does not yield proper predictions for sand–clay samples containing 20% clay volume and above, particularly when the clay is mainly smectite. The acoustic and physical properties derived from experimental compaction of pure sands and sand–clay mixtures show a good agreement with rock properties derived from well logs of mechanically compacted pure sands and shaly sands in progressively subsided basins such as Viking Graben in the North Sea. Thus, the outcome of this study can provide reliable constraints for rock physical properties of sands and shaly sands within the mechanical compaction domain and contribute to improved basin modelling and identification of hydrocarbon presence, overconsolidation, and/or undercompaction.

The Barents Sea is believed to have been influenced in most parts by Cenozoic uplift and erosion episodes. The rocks in the area are not currently at their maximum burial depth. The exhumation of the sedimentary rocks has had large effects on rock physical properties and hydrocarbon maturation and migration. The current study seeks to estimate exhumation from shale compaction and thermal maturity techniques and discuss its implications for hydrocarbon exploration in the uplifted Barents Sea area. This study uses well logs and thermal maturity data together with widely distributed shot gather data along long-offset seismic reflection lines. The use of shale compaction techniques to estimate exhumation was focused particularly on the regionally preserved Aptian-Albian (Kolmule Formation) and Paleogene (Torsk Formation) shales. Normal compaction reference curves were established for these units in areas currently at their maximum burial depth (e.g. Sorvestsnaget Basin and Vestbakken Volcanic Province). The results suggest widespread Cenozoic exhumation throughout the southwestern Barents Sea. The exhumation magnitudes increase towards east and northeast. The average exhumation estimates from the three data sources range from ∼800 to 1400 m within the Hammerfest Basin, ∼1150–1950 m on the Loppa High, ∼1200–1400 m on the Finmark Platform and ∼1250–2400 m on the Bjarmeland Platform. The marked differences in glacial erosion from mass balance and average erosion estimates from the current study suggest a significant pre-glacial uplift and erosion in the southwestern Barents Sea area. The observed stratigraphy and presence of significant volumes of Late Oligocene-Middle Miocene sediments in basins at the outer margin, and increased erosion rates at the same time in source areas suggest that maximum burial in the southwestern Barents Sea may have occurred sometime during the Oligocene, or even earlier in the Eocene. The results from this study are useful input for modelling of source rock maturation, generation, migration and trapping of hydrocarbons in the area. These results are also an important input for the prediction of more precise reservoir and seal rock properties in frontier areas away from the exploration wells and provide valuable knowledge for the use of interval velocities in the uplifted areas.

A thick succession of fine-grained sediments in any sedimentary basin can serve as source (if organic-rich) and top seals. Both sealing and petroleum generation capacity of any fine-grained succession is dependent on compaction history (mechanical and chemical compactions) of the sediments. In the Egersund Basin, a thick succession of fine-grained sediments of Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous age overly Middle Jurassic reservoir sands. The Egersund Basin, however, has experienced a complex depositional and tectonic history, particularly, late exhumation (Neogene) which complicates the overall burial, thermal and pressure history. In this study, petrophysical and acoustic properties (bulk density and P-wave velocity) of 10 exploration wells from two neighboring blocks in the Egersund Basin were utilized to investigate compaction processes in the area. In addition, X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analyses from selected wells and available total organic carbon (TOC) data were used as guide to interpret the compaction processes and resulting rock properties. The results show that the transition from mechanical to chemical compaction is not sharp. The onset of chemical compaction imposes a measurable deviation in the burial depth trends of the petrophysical properties expected from purely mechanical compaction. The continuation of the depth related trends however, indicates that chemical compaction may occur in concurrent with continuing mechanical compaction. The observed compaction varies between the different clay dominated stratigraphic units; indicating that the major control on both mechanical and chemical compaction is the primary sediment composition.

Laboratory experiments were performed to investigate high-temperature (100–150 °C) authigenic formation of clay coatings (smectites, chlorites) on clean feldspar and quartz surfaces. Artificial formation waters were used, with Mg-concentrations in the range of North Sea brines. Experiments were run for 21–50 days in brines composed of magnesium chloride and sodium carbonate adjusted to circum-neutral pH. The experiments suggest that the silica activity is the main factor determining if grain coating smectites or chlorite form. The clay minerals form easily on both clean quartz and feldspar surfaces, but chlorite coatings were formed only on feldspar surfaces while smectite coatings were formed on both feldspar and quartz. The chlorite morphology varies between honeycomb, edge-to-face and rosette patterns, while all smectite formed with honeycomb-like textures. The clay coatings produced in this study are morphologically similar to naturally occurring diagenetic clay minerals. In natural sediments and sedimentary rocks, the formation of clay coatings is promoted by pre-existing clay drapings on mineral grains. The growth substrates used in this study were not coated with such a natural precursor materials. This suggests that the nucleation of clay coatings in nature may be possible on clean quartz and feldspar surfaces, but pre-existing clay minerals may impact the allowed levels of supersaturations and thereby the formation of the grain-coating phases.

The tight sandstones of the Cretaceous Quantou formation are the main exploration target for hydrocarbons in the southern Songliao basin. Authigenic quartz is a significant cementing material in these sandstones, significantly reducing porosity and permeability. For efficient predicting and extrapolating the petrophysical properties within these tight sandstones, the quartz cement and its origin need to be better understood. The tight sandstones have been examined by a variety of methods. The sandstones are mostly lithic arkoses and feldspathic litharenites, compositionally immature with an average framework composition of Q43F26L31, which are characterized by abundant volcanic rock fragments. Mixed-layer illite/smectite (I/S) ordered interstratified with R = 1 and R = 3 is the dominating clay mineral in the studied sandstone reservoirs. Two different types of quartz cementation modes, namely quartz grain overgrowth and pore-filling authigenic quartz, have been identified through petrographic observations, CL and SEM analysis. Homogenization temperatures of the aqueous fluid inclusions indicate that both quartz overgrowths and pore-filling authigenic quartz formed with a continuous process from about 70 °C to 130 °C. Sources for quartz cement produced are the conversion of volcanic fragments, smectite to illite reaction and pressure solution at micro stylolites. Potassium for the illitization of smectite has been sourced from K-feldspar dissolution and albitization. Silica sourced from K-feldspars dissolution and kaolinite to illite conversion is probably only minor amount and volumetrically insignificant. The internal supplied silica precipitate within a closed system where the transport mechanism is diffusion. The quartz cementation can destroy both porosity and permeability, but strengthen the rock framework and increase the rock brittleness effectively at the same time.

This study presents the results of experimental compaction while measuring ultrasonic velocities of sands with different grain size, shape, sorting and mineralogy. Uniaxial mechanical compaction tests up to a maximum of 50 MPa effective stress were performed on 29 dry sand aggregates derived from eight different sands to measure the rock properties. A good agreement was found between the Gassmann saturated bulk moduli of dry and brine saturated tests of selected sands. Sand samples with poor sorting showed low initial porosity while sands with high grain angularity had high initial porosity. The sand compaction tests showed that at a given stress well-sorted, coarse-grained sands were more compressible and had higher velocities (Vp and Vs) than fine-grained sands when the mineralogy was similar. This can be attributed to grain crushing, where coarser grains lead to high compressibility and large grain-to-grain contact areas result in high velocities. At medium to high stresses the angular coarse to medium grained sands (both sorted sands and un-sorted whole sands) showed high compaction and velocities (Vp and Vs). The small grain-to-grain contact areas promote higher deformation at grain contacts, more crushing and increased porosity loss resulting in high velocities. Compaction and velocities (Vp and Vs) increased with decreasing sorting in sands. However, at the same porosity, the velocities in whole sands were slightly lower than in the well-sorted sands indicating the presence of loose smaller grains in-between the framework grains. Quartz-poor sands (containing less than 55% quartz) showed higher velocities (Vp and Vs) compared to that of quartz-rich sands. This could be the result of sintering and enlargement of grain contacts of ductile mineral grains in the quartz-poor sands increasing the effective bulk and shear stiffness. Tests both from wet measurements and Gassmann brine substitution showed a decreasing Vp/Vs ratio with increasing effective stress. The quartz-rich sands separated out towards the higher side of the Vp/Vs range. The Gassmann brine substituted Vp and Vs plotted against effective stress provide a measure of the expected velocity range to be found in these and similar sands during mechanical compaction. Deviations of actual well log data from experimental data may indicate uplift, the presence of hydrocarbon, overpressure and/or cementation. Data from this study may help to model velocity-depth trends and to improve the characterization of reservoir sands from well log data in a low temperature (

Rock physical properties, like velocity and bulk density, change as a response to compaction processes in sedimentary basins. In this study it is shown that the velocity and density in a well defined lithology, the shallow marine Etive Formation from the northern North Sea increase with depth as a function of mechanical compaction and quartz cementation. Physical properties from well logs combined with experimental compaction and petrographic analysis of core samples shows that mechanical compaction is the dominant process at shallow depth while quartz cementation dominates as temperatures are increased during burial. At shallow depths (

Oedometric mechanical compaction tests were performed on brine-saturated synthetic samples consisting of silt-clay mixtures to study changes in microfabric and rock properties as a function of effective stress. The silt consisted of crushed quartz (∼100%) with grain size range between 4 and 40 μm, whereas the clay consisted of 81% kaolinite, 14% mica/illite and 5% microcline of grain size between 0.4 and 30 μm. Five sample pairs ranging in composition from pure silt to pure clay were compacted to 5 and 50 MPa effective stress respectively. SEM studies were carried out to investigate microfabric changes in the mechanically compacted silt-clay mixtures. The degree of alignment of the different minerals present (quartz, mica/illite and kaolinite) were computed by using an image analysis software. Experimental compaction have measured the changes in the rock properties such as porosity and velocity as a function of effective stress for different mixtures of clay and silt. Clay-rich samples showed a higher degree of mineral orientation and lower porosity compared to silt-dominated samples as a function of effective stress. Pure clay sample had 11% porosity at 50 MPa effective stress whereas the pure silt sample retained about 29% porosity at the same effective stress. The experiments showed that low porosity down to 11% is possible by mechanical compaction only. A systematic increase in strain was observed in the silt-clay mixtures with increasing clay content but the porosity values found for the 50:50 silt-clay mixture were lower than that of 25:75 silt-clay mixture. No preferential mineral orientation is expected before compaction owing to the high initial porosity suggesting that the final fabric is a direct result of the effective stress. Both P- and S-wave velocities increased in all silt-clay mixtures with increasing effective stress. The maximum P- and S-wave velocities were observed in the 25:75 silt-clay mixture whereas the minimum Vp and Vs were recorded in the pure silt mixture. At 50 MPa effective stress P- wave velocities as high as 3 km/s resulted from experimental mechanical compaction alone. The results show that fine-grained sediment porosity and velocity are dependent on microfabric, which in turn is a function of grain size distribution, particle shape, sediment composition and stress. At 5 MPa effective stress, quartz orientation increased as a function of the amount of clay indicating that clay facilitate rotation of angular quartz grains. Adding clay from 25% to 75% in the silt-clay mixtures at 50 MPa effective stress decreased the quartz alignment. The clay mineral orientation increased by increasing both the amount of clay and the effective stress, the mica/illite fabric alignment being systematically higher than that of kaolinite. Even small amount of silt (25%) added to pure clay reduced the degree of clay alignment significantly. This study demonstrates that experimental compaction of well characterized synthetic mudstones can be a useful tool to understand microfabric and rock properties of shallow natural mudstones where mechanical compaction is the dominant process.

Late Cretaceous mudstones from two wells located in the northern North Sea and the Norwegian Sea have been examined with respect to quartz cement. Two different types of quartz cement (Type 1 and Type 2) have been identified using SEM/EDS/CL-analysis of drill-bit cuttings at depths 2370–2670 m (80–85 °C). Type 1 appears as relatively large aggregates (30–100 μm) of depth/temperature related crypto- or microcrystalline to macrocrystalline irregular quartz cement formed by local re-crystallization of biogenic silica. The CL-responses of Type 1 quartz cement give a clear indication of an authigenic origin. Type 2 quartz cement represents relatively high amounts of extremely fine-grained micro-sized (1–3 μm) crystals embedded as discrete, short chains or small clusters/nests within the illitized clay matrix. The CL-responses of micro-quartz crystals indicate an authigenic origin. The micro-quartz is most probably sourced from silica released during the smectite to illite dissolution–precipitation reaction. The petrographic evidence indicates that most of the silica released by the smectite to illite reaction has not been exported out of the mudstones. The silica released produce a subtle inter-connected micro-quartz network interlocked with aggregates of micro-quartz and authigenic clay crystals. This micro-quartz cementation process causes a significant and sharp change in the mudstone stiffness at the onset of the chemical compaction regime. This is indicated by an abrupt increase in well log velocity (Vp) and change in seismic facies close to 2500 m (80/85 °C).

Overpressure generation is a function of the rates of sedimentation, compaction, fluid generation from kerogen and dehydration of minerals, and most importantly the lateral distribution of permeability within a basin as this controls lateral drainage. Sedimentary basins, however, are typically highly heterogeneous with respect to primary sedimentary facies, diagenesis and tectonic development. While fluid flow models based on idealised homogeneous basins may further our understanding of the processes that influence overpressure development, the results are very sensitive to the distribution of rock properties, particularly permeability. The absolute permeability of sedimentary rocks varies from more than 1 Darcy to less than 0.01 nanodarcy (nD) (10 −11 Darcy). Simple calculations, assuming vertical flow and no lateral drainage within the basin, show that overpressures approaching fracture pressure in the overburden will be reached if the effective permeability of the shale forming the seal is less than 0.1–0.01 nD (1.10 −22 –1.10 −23 m 2 ). The permeability of shales varies greatly as a function of primary textural and minnerlogical composition and it is not possible to accurately predict the effective permeability of a sequence of shales forming pressure barriers. Overpressure in uplifted basins, where there is no compaction taking place, can only be maintained over geological time if the permeabilities are much lower. Overpressure is often controlled by lateral drainage but the effective permeabilities for fluid flow across faults and the offset of permeable layers are also difficult to predict. In most cases, uncalibrated basin modelling is unable to accurately predict the magnitude and distribution of overpressures because the vertical and horizontal permeabilities in sedimentary basins cannot be determined in sufficient detail. In basins that have been extensively explored and developed, incorporation of prior geological knowledge into basin models may allow overpressures to be predicted ahead of the drill bit. However, with such a large body of information already gathered about the basin it is debatable what extra value basin modelling is providing to pressure predictions.

The anisotropy of physical properties is a well-known characteristic of many clay-bearing rocks. This anisotropy has important implications for elastic properties of rocks and must be considered in seismic modeling. Preferred orientation of clay minerals is an important factor causing anisotropy in clay-bearing rocks such as shales and mudstones that are the main cap rocks of oil reservoirs. The preferred orientation of clays depends mostly on the amount of clays and the degree of compaction. To study the effect of these parameters, we prepared several samples compressing (at two effective vertical stresses) a mixture of clays (illite and kaolinite) and quartz (silt) with different clay/quartz ratios. The preferred orientation of the phases was quantified with Rietveld analysis on synchrotron hard X-ray images. Pole figures for kaolinite and illite display a preferred orientationof clay platelets perpendicular to the compaction direction, increasing in strength with clay content and compaction pressure. Quartz particles have a random orientation distribution. Aggregate elastic properties can be estimated by averaging the single-crystal properties over the orientation distribution obtained from the diffraction data analysis. Calculated P-wave velocity anisotropy ranges from 0% (pure quartz sample) to 44% (pure clay sample, highly compacted), but calculated velocities are much higher than measured velocities. This is attributed to uncertainties about single-crystal elastic properties and oriented micropores and limited grain contacts that are not accounted for in the model. In this work, we present an effective method to obtain quantitative data, helping to evaluate the role of clay percentage and compaction pressure on the anisotropy of elastic properties of clay-bearing rocks.

Clay minerals are the most abundant materials in sedimentary basins. The most common—like kaolinite, illite, chlorite, and smectite—are found in various amounts in mudstones and are also often found in clastic and nonclastic reservoir rocks. Their presence alters the elastic behavior of reservoir rocks significantly as a function of mineral type, volume and distribution. Thus, two sandstones with the same clay amount might have different elastic properties due to differences within the clay population. The elastic properties of clay minerals are therefore important in rock physics modeling to understand the seismic and sonic log responses of shaley sequences and clay-bearing reservoir rocks.

This study describes uniaxial mechanical compaction tests performed on two naturally occurring unconsolidated sands with different mineralogy, quartz-rich and quartz-poor, in order to investigate the effect of pore pressure on the P-wave velocity. The compaction experiments simulated burial of sands with increasing vertical stress and pore pressure, and also simulated the effect of overpressure. For both sands the P-wave velocity increased and porosities decreased with increasing pore pressure when the applied vertical stress was increased at the same rate as the pore pressure. These effects may result from grain rearrangement, with decreasing radial effective stress offsetting the contraction of sand grains caused by pore pressure increase. The P-wave effective stress coefficient np was computed using a simple procedure. A decrease in np of the quartz-poor sand above 10 MPa vertical effective stress was observed. This decrease is attributed to compaction, mainly due to grain crushing. The experimental results show that pore pressure can have significant effects on P-wave velocity and np, both directly and indirectly, depending upon the stress loading paths and mineralogy. Introduction In laboratory experiments the P-wave velocity is observed to vary non-linearly with effective stress. P-wave velocity is influenced both by the overburden stress and the pore pressure in addition to rock porosity, texture, and mineralogy. This dependence may be important for practical applications such as overpressure estimation (Mondol et al., 2008b) and 4D seismic interpretation (Landro, 2001). The assumption that the effective stress is equal to the difference between the applied stress and the pore pressure was suggested by Terzaghi (1943); in tectonically relaxed basins, it can be expressed as

International audience; This study is based on rock mechanical tests of samples from platform carbonate strata to document their petrophysical properties and determine their potential for porosity loss by mechanical compaction. Sixteen core-plug samples, including eleven limestones and five dolostones, from Miocene carbonate platforms on the Marion Plateau, offshore northeast Australia, were tested at vertical effective stress, View the MathML source, of 0–70 MPa, as lateral strain was kept equal to zero. The samples were deposited as bioclastic facies in platform-top settings having paleo-water depths of

International audience; Uniaxial compression tests were conducted on bioclastic sand and crushed calcite crystals. Mechanical and chemical processes were investigated to better quantify petrophysical properties of carbonates and their evolution with burial or during fault zone processes. The grain size was in the range 63-500 μm, and the samples were saturated with water in equilibrium with carbonate, glycol, decane, or air. During loading, effective stress was increased to 32 MPa. Mechanical compaction processes (i.e., grain rearrangement, crushing) could be separated from chemical processes (i.e., pressure solution, subcritical crack growth). P and S waves monitored during the tests showed low velocity in samples saturated with reactive fluids. This suggested that chemical reactions at grain contacts reduced the grain framework stiffness. Creep tests were also carried out on bioclastic sand at effective stress of 10, 20, and 30 MPa. No creep was observed in samples saturated with nonreactive fluids. For all the samples saturated with reactive fluids, strain as a function of time was described by a power law of time with a single exponent close to 0.23. Parameters controlling creep rate were, in order of importance, grain size, effective stress, and water saturation. Microstructural observations showed that compaction of bioclastic carbonate sand occurred both mechanically and chemically. Crack propagation probably contributed to mechanical compaction and enhanced chemical compaction during creep. Experimental compaction showed that compaction of carbonates should be modeled as a function of both mechanical and chemical processes, also at relatively shallow depth and low temperature.

For the first time, direct petrographic evidence of fine-grained (1–3 μm) crystals of pore-filling quartz cement in mudstones is documented. The cathodoluminescence responses of the micro-quartz give a clear indication of an authigenic origin. The detection of micro-quartz cement in drill-bit cutting samples at depths around and deeper than 2500 m (80–85°C ) of Upper Cretaceous mudstones in the northern North Sea suggests that most of the silica released during mudstone diagenesis is not exported to adjacent sandstones but precipitated locally. The locally precipitated micro-quartz has most likely been sourced by silica released from the dissolution of smectite, resulting in precipitation of illite (and possibly chlorite) during progressive burial. The continuous nucleation–precipitation process, which takes place in the chemical compaction regime close to and above 80–85°C, explains why the micro-quartz crystals are found as isolated grains, short chains, and small nests/clusters of micro-quartz embedded in the fine-grained matrix. The interconnected micro-quartz networks (skeletons) and aggregates probably increase the mudstone stiffness significantly, as indicated by an abrupt increase in P-wave velocity close to 2500 m (80–85°C).

We have compared compaction trends for synthetic mudstones to well logs in order to predict pore pressure in shallow mudstone sequences in the northern North Sea and Voring Basin, offshore Norway. Well log data showing intervals of higher porosity and lower density than the experimental data may indicate significant overpressure development. The variability found within mudstone compaction trends indicates that mechanical compaction of mudstones varies over a wide range depending on clay mineral type (smectite, kaolinite, chlorite, illite, etc.), particle size, the total amount of clays, sand and silt particles (quartz, feldspar, mica, etc.), nature of pore fluids, and pore pressure. Smectite has low ompressibility, velocity, and permeability compared to other clay minerals. The key to successful application of compaction trends to pore pressure prediction, therefore, must be lithological and textural characterization of the individual mudstones. These parameters are predominantly controlled by provenance, facies, and depositional history. This study demonstrates that experimental compaction trends of well characterized synthetic mudstones can be a useful tool to predict pore pressure during shallow burial where mechanical compaction is the dominant process.