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The road that crosses the Haibat Sultan Mountain in the northern part of Iraq; is one of the dangerous roads in this region. To perform a slope stability analysis for the dangerous parts of the road, we have used Bejerman’s Method. We have reviewed satellite images of the road and all those potential areas were checked in the field; accordingly, eleven stations were recognized. Landslide Possibility Index was determined at the studied stations following Bejerman’s field method. The road climbs the southern face (dip slope) of the mountain through very hard carbonate rocks of the Pila Spi Formation, where the bedding planes daylight in the slope face near the road cuts. This produced many large landslides. Along the northern face of the mountain, the road runs through soft clastic rocks where joint planes in the rock mass intersect and daylight in the slope face near the road cut. In order to prevent future wedge failures, a 30 m offset was created from the toe of the slope to the road. In almost all cases, the Landslide Possibility Index indicated a moderate to very high likelihood for failure along all road cuts.

This paper presents the analyses of toppling response of layered reverse-dip slopes under the influence of geometric factors of slope angle, strata thickness and dip. The toppling response of reverse-dip slopes under different geometric factors is obtained by using the discrete element code UDEC. Then, a prediction model for toppling deformation is developed by utilizing support vector machine and the toppling-prone combinations of these geometric factors are determined from a total of 120 samples of reverse-dip slopes. The study has shown that the geometric model is a quarter of a spheroid with a slope angle of 80°, a strata dip of 80°, and a strata thickness of 0.19 m as the center. The length of the long equatorial radius of the spheroid is 31° (strata dip axial), that of the short equatorial radius is 21° (slope angle axial), and the polar radius is 0.075 m (strata thickness axial). And the ratio of long equatorial radius, short equatorial radius, and polar radius is 2.48:1.68:1.00.

Landslide dams can be very dangerous, with inundation occurring via rising waters upstream, and flooding downstream via dam breaching. Here, we report on a landslide that dammed the Mangapoike River in eastern North Island, New Zealand. The landslide is a low-angle wedge failure in the Miocene weak rock sandstones and mudstones of the Tolaga Group, forming a landslide dam (volume c. 8 million m3) and a lake 50 m deep with a surface area of 0.35 km2, before explosives were used to form a dam spillway to decrease lake level. The landslide formed along an escarpment in northwest-dipping sandstones, and is characterised by a linear lateral scarp, a headscarp, and a bedding-plane rupture surface, which controlled the landslide block geometry. The headscarp and lateral scarp have developed along propagating vertical fractures. The slide surface is a smoothed, northwest-dipping bedding plane, and intersects the vertical fractures in the lateral scarp, forming a wedge. While the principal failure mechanism was sliding involving a single large wedge-shaped block, the rapid movement led to disintegration of most of the block. Part of the detached slide block remained intact, but most of the displaced mass forming the landslide dam is disaggregated blocks in a sandy-silty matrix. Rainfall and meteoric groundwater probably did not initiate failure. Instead, river incision of the dip slope toe, and overpressurisation of fluids that are known to accumulate in sandstones overlain by impermeable mudstones in the region, probably decreased the effective stress along the existing bedding plane, initiating failure.

On May 12, 2019, a landslide occurred near a construction site of a reservoir dam along the left bank of the Wulong River, Qinghai Province, China. Video footage showed that the entire failure process of the landslide lasted for 15 min. Although an excavator that parked on the foundation pit was buried and the Wulong River was blocked, this landslide did not cause any casualties. Based on field investigations, 3D laser scanning, unmanned aerial vehicle observations, and borehole surveys, this study aims to reveal the cause and initiation mechanisms of the landslide. The landslide developed on a typical dip slope with thick-bedded conglomerates intercalated with a few mudstone layers. The slide mass mainly consisted of conglomerates with a dip angle varying from 20 to 40°, failing along bedding plane contacts with the underlying muddy intercalation. Numerous tension cracks had developed in the upper part of the slope due to stress relaxation during the process of bank slope evolution associated with rapid river incision. These cracks damaged the integrity of the rock mass and promoted rapid rainfall infiltration. The water infiltrated into the slope and deteriorated the mechanical properties of the rock mass, which resulted in long-term deterioration of the slope stability conditions. In addition, the temperature of Tongren County was below zero for 5 months in a year, hence the freeze–thaw cycle of the water filled in the cracks would have reduced the shear strength further. There were 10 days of continuous rainfall before the landslide occurred, and the cumulative precipitation in 2018 and 2019 was also significantly more than that of previous years. Three primary factors are involved in the landslide event: (1) thick-bedded conglomerates intercalated with a few mudstone layers with contrasts in strength, (2) development of numerous relaxation cracks, and (3) long-term rainfall accumulation.

The major regions of Taiwan consist of high-relief terrain exposed to frequent typhoons and earthquakes. Recently, thousands of potential large-scale landslides have been delineated via remote sensing analysis and field surveys. However, little attention has been paid to the stability of colluvium, which is a potential hazard. This study investigated a paleo-rockslide site in detail and proposes a geological model to explain the failure mechanism. The studied area is in Jiasian, Southern Taiwan, and the site is a dip slope consisting of Miocene sedimentary rocks. Detailed topographic features, including residual slip surfaces, platforms, scarps, and colluviums, are identified using the slope map of a 1- m airborne remotely sensed digital elevation model. Platforms beneath the residual slip surfaces represent the topographic features of the paleo-rockslide, an interpretation validated by field works and core analysis. The platforms consist of a displaced rock mass (DRM) with a gentle bedding dip angle and interbedded structure that has been preserved. A geological model is established according to the data compiled; outcrops of DRM and colluviums on bedrock were delineated in the geological map and profiles. Outcrops of shear off, buckling, and compressive ridges within the alternating sandstone and shale are distributed at the toe of the residual slip surfaces. A geological model with identified topographic features is adopted to establish the geomorphological evolution of the site. A buckling-induced rockslide model in the dip slope of the interbedded layers is proposed, and potential future slope failure scenarios can be evaluated using the geomorphological evolution model.

A slow-moving landslide on the Huafan University campus, which is located on a dip slope in northern Taiwan, has been observed since 1990. However, reliable monitoring data are difficult to acquire after 2018 due to the lack of continuous maintenance of the field measurement equipment. In this study, the multitemporal interferometry (MTI) technique is applied with Sentinel-1 SAR images to monitor the slow-moving landslide from 2014–2019. The slow-moving areas detected by persistent scatterer (PS) pixels are consistent with the range of previous studies, which are based on in situ monitoring data and field surveys. According to the time series of the PS pixels, a long period gravity-induced deformation of the slow-moving landslide can be clearly observed. Moreover, a short period seasonal surface fluctuation of the slow-moving landslide, which has seldom been discussed before, can also be detected in this study. The seasonal surface fluctuation is in-phase with precipitation, which is inferred to be related to the geological and hydrological conditions of the study area. The MTI technique can compensate for the lack of surface displacement data, in this case, the Huafan University campus, and provide information for evaluating and monitoring slow-moving landslides for possible landslide early warning in the future.

Geological structures precondition hillslope stability as well as the processes and landslide mechanisms which develop in response to deglaciation. In areas experiencing glacier retreat and debuttressing, identifying landslide preconditions is fundamental for anticipating landslide development. Herein, the ~ 150 M m3 Mueller Rockslide in Aoraki/Mount Cook National Park, New Zealand, is described; and we document how preconditions have controlled its morphology and development in response to thinning of the adjacent Mueller Glacier. A combination of geomorphological and geotechnical mapping—based on field, geophysical and remote sensing data—was used to characterise the rock mass and morphology of the rockslide and surrounding hillslope. Mueller Rockslide is identified as a rock compound slide, undergoing dominantly translational failure on a dip slope. The crown of the rockslide is bounded by several discontinuous, stepped scarps whose orientation is controlled by joint sets; these scarps form a zone of toppling that is delivering rock debris to the main rockslide body. Surface and subsurface discontinuity mapping above the crown identified numerous joints, fractures and several scarps that may facilitate continued retrogressive enlargement of the rockslide. The presence of lateral release structures, debuttressing of the rockslide toe and steeply dipping bedding suggest that the rockslide may be capable of evolving to a rapid failure.

To clarify the scale effect of slope deformation, this study investigates the behaviors of dip slopes with various heights and geological properties using centrifuge and numerical modeling. Three types of physical and numerical models with different rock layer thicknesses and weak plane angles were constructed for analysis and validation. The models were subject to toe submersion to simulate the wetting deterioration condition. Based on the analysis results, the deformation, sliding, and debris accumulation of small slopes (a few meters high) may be insignificant. However, the deformation behaviors of higher slopes with the same angle (with a height of tens to a hundred meters) can be more severe and affect the whole slope, especially if the slope has a high weak plane angle with alternating thin rock layers. Some early warning signs, such as bulging-induced tension cracks close to the toe or the relative sliding of layers at the slope surface or crest, can produce more massive landslides or debris accumulation of the dip slopes, especially for high slopes.

Anti-dip slope that fails in the form of flexural toppling is commonly encountered in rock engineering. This paper presents an approach to calculate the local failure probability of the anti-dip slope susceptible to flexural toppling. The realization of this approach consists of four major steps: (1) establishing geo-mechanical model of the slope and generating physical parameters randomly using Monte Carlo simulation, (2) determining the demarcation of the toppling and sliding failure zones, (3) evaluating the stability state of each single column, and (4) deriving the local failure probability by an iterative calculation. A case study of the Mari landslide is analyzed by employing the proposed approach, and the Maxwell model is applied to reduce physical parameters with time. The results show that the instability grade increases gradually throughout the whole evolution process of the slope. In the incipient stage, particular attention should be paid to the middle–upper columns, which have the highest failure probabilities. However, as the slope deformation increases, all the columns should be taken into account since they have approximately the equal possibility of failure. A simplified slope model is employed to perform a parametric analysis. The results show that (1) the local failure probability of the slope tends to decrease with increases in the rock friction angle, rock tensile strength or interface friction angle, while increasing the rock unit weight leads to a higher probability of local failure; (2) the computation results are more sensitive to the uncertainty in the interface friction angle than that in the other three above-mentioned parameters; and (3) the maximum failure probability depends on the geometric parameters, including the column interface angle, slope angle, crest angle, slope height and column thickness.

The past decade has witnessed increasing case studies on the application of 3D discrete element modeling to assess potential rockslide disasters. The assessment is usually based only on the influence area related to kinematic process and final deposition by the simulation. Currently, the hazard of the rockslide-structure interaction is not well defined, and only a few studies have quantality this behavior with a parametric analysis. A dip slope disaster case history on 18 August 1997 in Taiwan was simulated in this study using discrete element method (DEM). The landslide intensely damaged a five-floor building complex of the Lincoln community and caused 28 death. This study first gathered historical aerial images, geology maps of 1:50,000 scale, post-disaster investigation reports, and in-situ photos to clarify the geological and geometry conditions of the dip slope and its spatial relationship to the Lincoln community. Most importantly, a 3D geomechanical model was developed for the numerical study. With the advantage of DEM analysis on large deformation problems, the entire impact process of the dip slope failure was simulated, starting from rock mass sliding to collision and breaking during movement, impacting on the structural buildings and progressive failure of the structures. The simulated results agree well with the field observation after the incident in 1997. The parametric results show that the configuration of the geological discontinuity dominates the magnitude of the potential sliding block, and the rockslide-structure interactions are affected by the relative location between rock slope and buildings and the strengths of rock mass and structure elements. Overall, the 3D DEM-based simulation provides qualitative information on the impact process of the rockslide and the damage states of the building complex. This validated numerical approach can be a valuable tool for assessing the building vulnerability to rockslide with scenario study.

As the scale and depth of mines increase, large deformations of high-steep slopes progressively become prominent. Compared with the ordinary cables, negative Poisson’s ratio (NPR) cables can provide a constant resistance force and high deformation inhibition during slope deformation, avoiding the occurrence of slope instability hazards. Consequently, the control effects on the toppling failures of slopes were necessary to be researched. Changshanhao open-pit gold mine was taken as an example; based on the field geological investigation and rock mechanics testing, a three-dimensional engineering geological model of open-pit mine was constructed. Subsequently, the stability of open pit in current situation and final boundary situation was estimated with FLAC3D software, for the potential slope vulnerable areas to be comprehensively identified. Finally, the control effects of ordinary cables and NPR cables on the instable W13 slope section were compared and studied through FLAC3D simulations, and the reinforcement effects of NPR cable on the anti-dip slope were proved as significant; meanwhile, the corresponding reinforcement methods in the failure mine areas were proposed, laying a reference for the instability failure control and reinforcement of similar anti-dip slopes.

Recent studies of the form and development of rock slopes have focused on the properties of materials as geomorphic controls. In the absence of structural controls, rock mass strength has been found to be an important determinant of slope form. In the fold mountains of the southern and southwestern Cape Province, South Africa, rock slopes on quartzite have developed to forms controlled by rock mass strength (strength equilibrium slopes), structure, and denudational processes. Contingency table analysis indicates that the rock properties of greatest significance as determinants of the form of strength equilibrium slopes are intact rock strength and the spacing of joints and other geological discontinuities. On undercut, unbuttressed rock masses and on buttressed (dip slope) forms, parting roughness is a key factor in slope development by virtue of the effect of parting roughness on shear strength. Roughness measurements, tilt tests, and field observation indicate that the effective friction angle of the quartzite is approximately 55°.

A large catastrophic rock avalanche with a total volume of ~18.0 × 106 m3 occurred at 5:38 am, 24th June 2017, at Xinmo Village, Maoxian, Sichuan, China, resulting in 102 casualties (10 deaths, 3 injuries, and 89 missing). We have been conducting a geological and geomorphological investigation in and around the Xinmo landslide site since 2015, and we present our results here, including data obtained before and after the landslide event. The landslide, which had an initial volume of 4.46 × 106 m3 of its source area, was induced by rainfall on a previous landslide scar near the ridge top. This initial landslide then struck and remobilized older landslide deposits in the middle and lower parts of the slope, which subsequently buried Xinmo Village at the landslide toe. The landslide occurred on a dip slope of Triassic calcareous psammitic and pelitic schists. The bedding plane, which dips downslope to the south with an orientation of N80°W/48°S, and high-angle NE–SW striking joints bounded the landslide source area at its base and sides, respectively. Satellite image analysis and field observations of the slope of the landslide scar before and after the landslide strongly suggest that the beds in the source area had already begun gravitationally deforming (e.g., buckling) prior to the 2017 landslide. Moreover, pits on the slip surface were likely the result of the dissolution of calcareous material. Dissolution probably reduced the rock strength along the bedding plane. A rainfall event from the 16th to 24th of June 2017 probably dominated the groundwater drainage, and finally triggered the catastrophic rock avalanche. In addition to the 2017 landslide, the hillslope just to the east of the Xinmo landslide exhibits pronounced gravitational slope deformation, including “A-tent”-like structures and warps induced by buckling. This suggests that this slope could also fail like the Xinmo rock avalanche during a future rainfall or earthquake event.

A dip slope contains weak planes in the same dip direction along the slope face. In this study, a discrete element simulation was implemented to investigate the behavior of a dip slope under shaking table tests. The simulated dip slope model was first verified by testing under different horizontal excitations. Then, the influence of the slope angle and dynamic force on the deformation characteristics of the dip slopes was explored. The simulations provide detailed descriptions of the deformation processes and potential sliding mechanisms associated with the dip slopes. The results of this study are summarized as follows: (1) Two types of slope sliding, namely differential and complete, were recognized. The model with a dip angle lower than 20° was more stable, and differential sliding developed gradually during external excitation. In the model with a dip angle higher than 20°, the external excitation easily triggered complete sliding. (2) For threshold slope angles higher than 20°, the behavior of the dip slope model changed from deformation to sliding, and the displacement within the models increased with increasing slope angle. (3) An increase in frequency led to a decrease in the trigger time for slope sliding. In addition, the slope angle was negatively correlated with the triggering time for sliding. (4) The amplification factor of peak ground displacement (PGD) increased as the slope angle increased. The amplification factors corresponding to low excitation frequencies were considerably lower than those for high excitation frequencies. In contrast to the trends for PGD, the amplification factor of peak ground acceleration (PGA) decreased as the slope angle increased.

At 5 am 24th June 2017, a catastrophic landslide hit Xinmo Village, Maoxian County, Sichuan Province, China. The slide mass rushed down from an altitude of 3400m and traveled 2700 m in a high velocity. The 13 million m3 deposition buried the whole village and caused about 100 deaths. The source area of the landslide is located in a high steep slope, average slope angle is 40o and maximal angle is 65o. The strata are interbedded Triassic Zagunao Formation metamorphic sandstone and slate with the dip slope angle of 45°. Based on high-resolution satellite remote sensing image, UAV image, DEM data, and field investigation, failure mechanism, travel features, and deposit characteristics were analyzed. The results showed that this landslide was influenced by Songpinggou Fault zone. According to the topography before the failure, the landslide is located in the back scarp of an antecedent landslide induced by Diexi Earthquake in 1933. The bedding slope provided potential rupture surface. Historical seismic activities and long-term gravitational deformation caused rock mass accumulated damages. Weathering and precipitation weakened the rock mass and finally induced shearing and tension failure. A huge block detached from the top rock slope, pushed the past landslide deposits in the middle part, rushed out of the slope bottom in a high velocity and buried the Xinmo Village. The rapid movement entrained and brought the soil into the Songping Gully which recoiled with and bounced back from the opposite mountain.

This study investigated the effect of internal discontinuity on the dynamic response of a dip slope and evaluated the performance of Newmark’s theory on the sliding of a dip slope with multi-slip planes. A series of shaking table tests were performed under various geometric conditions to explore the dynamic behavior of a dip slope under different external excitations. The test results, including for deformation processes and critical accelerations, under various slope angles, slope sizes, and seismic intensities were examined and further compared with Newmark’s theory. The results of this study are summarized as follows: (1) two types of slope sliding (differential and complete) were determined. (2) Increasing the slope angle and the height of sliding mass tended to shorten the duration of slope deformation. (3) Critical acceleration of the slope increased gradually with increasing peak ground accelerations of input excitations; when the slope height and dip angle increased, the critical acceleration decreased. (4) The triggering time became earlier as the frequency of input excitation increased; the magnitude of sliding mass greatly depended on the amplitude of the input excitation. (5) By comparing critical acceleration between the experimental and theoretical results, Newmark’s theory was determined to overestimate critical acceleration during seismic-induced dip slope failure. This may cause unsafe evaluations, and sliding along existing discontinuities develops more easily in reality.

The Cotswold Hills, southwest UK, are properly described as a cuesta, with a steep, west-facing scarp slope and a plateau-like dip slope. Drainage reflects this surface morphology, with most rivers flowing southeast along topographic and stratigraphic dip. Here, we compare two superficially highly similar rivers – the Frome and Churn – whose sources are nearly coincident, but whose behaviour dramatically diverges thereafter. We examine longitudinal profiles, channel steepness, predicted discharge, and valley shapes, using digital topographic data. River discharge and water hardness/temperature values were obtained at seven sites on the Churn and nine on the Frome over a two-year sampling campaign, delineated into summer and winter phases. Nearly 100 borehole records were interrogated from the two catchments in order to assess groundwater level variations. The Frome, flowing west against regional dips, develops a steep course and has carved a deep and wide valley that exposes the full sequence of Cotswold Jurassic stratigraphy. On the other hand, discharge and channel gradients are lower for the dip-slope Churn, whose valley exposes less stratigraphy and fewer springs. Our measurements of river water hardness and temperature suggest that a greater proportion of groundwater flows into the Frome, regulating discharge and maintaining baseflow over summer. We suggest that flank uplift of the Cotswolds is at least part of the reason for the higher incision rates of the River Frome, leading to its intersecting a greater number of highly transmissive fractures that contribute to its discharge. In turn, the increased discharge could positively impact local incision rates.

On June 24, 2017, a catastrophic landslide (Xinmo landslide) occurred on the left bank of Songping river in Diexi town, Sichuan Province, China. Based on field investigations, this paper tries to reveal the cause and mechanism of the initiation and development of the Xinmo landslide. Xinmo landslide is located in the so called “Minshan block.” This tectonic block is very active and generates many earthquakes. Among them, the 1933 Diexi Ms 7.5 earthquake which had an indispensable effect on the occurrence of the Xinmo landslide, whose distance to the recent Xinmo landslide is only 8.7 km. The 1933 earthquake triggered the collapse of the Qianxin gully, which damaged the rock mass forming the source of the Xinmo landslide and creating a free prominent ridge. The later 1976 Songpan Ms 7.2 earthquake and the 2008 Wenchuan Ms 8.0 earthquake further damaged the integrity of the rock mass in the source area of the 2017 Xinmo landslide. The Xinmo landslide developed on a typical bedding dip slope with metasandstone intercalated with a few thin bedded slate layers. The slate intercalation gives the slope a very low shear strength in the dip direction and the long term rainfall may have softened the slip zone and the locked section. These two aspects have promoted the occurrence of Xinmo landslide.

Slope failure is a widely observed phenomenon in the mountainous areas in Taiwan due to rainy climatic and fragile geological conditions. Landslides easily occur after intense rainfall, especially from typhoons, and, accordingly, cause a great loss of human life and property. At the northern end of the Western Foothill belt in northern Taiwan, Huafan University is founded on a dip-slope about 20° toward the southwest composed of early Miocene alternations of sandstone and shale. Data from continuous monitoring using inclinometers and groundwater gauges reveal that 6–10 mm/month of slope creeping occurs, and a potential sliding surface is then detected about 10–40 m beneath the slope surface. To understand the potential runout process of the dip-slope failure at the campus, particle flow code 3D models based on a discrete element method are applied in this study. Results of the simulation reveal a critical value of the friction coefficient to be 0.13 and that more than 90% of the campus buildings will slide down in 100 s when the friction coefficient is reduced to half the critical value. The weakening of the shear zone due to the rise of groundwater during rainstorms is assumed to be the main factor. Some suggestions for preventing landslide disasters are to construct catchpits to drain runoff and lower the groundwater table and to install a sufficient number of ground anchors and retaining walls to stabilize the slope.

Dip-slope mapping is a fundamental task for landslide investigation and mitigation. However, most dip-slope mapping methods involve visual interpretations and manual processes that are inevitably subjective and time consuming. The advent of high-resolution digital elevation models (DEM) and increases in computing power have provided opportunities to improve the dip-slope mapping process. This study proposes a polygon auto-tracing method for generating dip-slope maps based on airborne Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data and a customized spatial analysis toolset developed in Python. This method requires the input of strata boundaries produced for sedimentary terrain based on 2 m resolution LiDAR DEMs. The method begins by deriving the raster layer of the dip direction of the bedding, and it then executes a series of raster calculations among the three raster layers slope, aspect, and dip direction to extract the dip-slope raster cells. Using the clustering pattern of the dip-slope raster cells, we implement the Point-Density analysis tool to determine the dip-slope areas. The ArcGIS ModelBuilder platform is used to lay out an automated workflow for the proposed polygon auto-tracing method using the customized toolset. For demonstration purposes, we successfully mapped 298 dip slopes in the study area, which frequently experiences dip-slope landslides and is located in the sedimentary terrain of northern Taiwan. The dip-slope mapping results were compared and validated against two government-funded visually interpreted dip-slope maps. Our dip-slope mapping results were also used in a daylight analysis along major freeways to identify potential locations of daylighted dip slopes.

Based on the combination of FLAC3D software and strength reduction method, the applicability of three kinds of instability criterion of the stability of dip slopes with interbeddings of weak and hard rocks is studied. Then the failure process, failure mode and stability of the slopes are analyzed. The results show that: (1) the maximum unbalance rate affects the final calculated results; there is no certain relation between the convergence of calculation and the slope stability. The convergence of the displacement curves of key points and the ultimate displacement values should also be concerned to determine the slope stability. The maximum unbalance rate and the amplitude of the reduction affect the determination of the characteristic point in the displacement curve. It is difficult to quantitatively evaluate the shear strain rate when judging the slope stability, the judgment is not convenient and the error is large. Combining with calculation convergence criterion and feature point displacement mutation criterion is helpful to improve the accuracy of judgment on the limit state of the slope. (2) Slope deformation and failure process can be roughly divided into four stages qualitatively; the rock mass has buckling failure can be divided into three stages according to the deformation characteristics. The potential shear export of slope with buckling failure locates above the slope toe. Different combinations of weak and strong rock thickness does not affect the failure mode of slope, which all bellows to buckling failure mode, but it will affect the slope stability coefficient; with the increase of the thickness of strong rock and weak rock, the stability coefficient increases. If the thickness of the strong rock increases, the stability coefficient increases as well when the thickness ratio is constant.

The 17 June 2017 rock avalanche in the Karrat Fjord, West Greenland, caused a tsunami that flooded the nearby village of Nuugaatsiaq and killed four people. The disaster was entirely unexpected since no previous records of large rock slope failures were known in the region, and it highlighted the need for better knowledge of potentially hazardous rock slopes in remote Arctic regions. The aim of the paper is to explore our ability to detect and locate unstable rock slopes in remote Arctic regions with difficult access. We test this by examining the case of the 17 June 2017 Karrat rock avalanche. The workflow we apply is based on a multidisciplinary analysis of freely available data comprising seismological records, Sentinel-1 spaceborne synthetic-aperture radar (SAR) data, and Landsat and Sentinel-2 optical satellite imagery, ground-truthed with limited fieldwork. Using this workflow enables us to reconstruct a timeline of rock slope failures on the coastal slope here collectively termed the Karrat Landslide Complex. Our analyses show that at least three recent rock avalanches occurred in the Karrat Landslide Complex: Karrat 2009, Karrat 2016, and Karrat 2017. The latter is the source of the abovementioned tsunami, whereas the first two are described here in detail for the first time. All three are interpreted as having initiated as dip-slope failures. In addition to the recent rock avalanches, older rock avalanche deposits are observed, demonstrating older (Holocene) periods of activity. Furthermore, three larger unstable rock slopes that may pose a future hazard are described. A number of non-tectonic seismic events confined to the area are interpreted as recording rock slope failures. The structural setting of the Karrat Landslide Complex, namely dip slope, is probably the main conditioning factor for the past and present activity, and, based on the temporal distribution of events in the area, we speculate that the possible trigger for rock slope failures is permafrost degradation caused by climate warming. The results of the present work highlight the benefits of a multidisciplinary approach, based on freely available data, to studying unstable rock slopes in remote Arctic areas under difficult logistical field conditions and demonstrate the importance of identifying minor precursor events to identify areas of future hazard.

Bedding dip has an important influence on soil detachment and flow hydrodynamics in a karst trough valley. The laboratory rainfall simulation was conducted with three bedding dips (bare slope, dip slope and anti-dip slope) under three rainfall intensities (30, 60, 90 mm h−1). The characteristics of soil detachment and hydrodynamic parameters were assessed, including water flow shear stress, stream power, unit stream power and unit flow energy. The significant effects of bedding dips and rainfall intensities and their interactions on soil detachment and hydrodynamic parameters were examined. The results showed that (1) the soil detachment rate decreased with increasing rainfall duration, and the soil detachment rate in 30° bedding dip of dip slope was much larger than those in bare slope and anti-dip slope in most rainfall intensities; (2) the 60° bedding dip of dip slope was the threshold that controlled the stream power, unit stream power and unit flow energy increased or decreased under different rainfall intensities; and (3) the soil detachment rate had extremely significant positive power relationships with water flow shear stress, stream power, unit stream power and unit flow energy. Meanwhile, the stream power was the most suitable parameter for predicting soil detachment in a karst trough valley slope. Therefore, these results could provide useful information for soil erosion prediction in a karst trough valley.

Existing fan-delta depositional models for lacustrine basins do not adequately address significant wave- and storm-related processes. However, in many lakes, such high-energy processes can be effectively driven by winds. As such, the prevailing wind direction determines the propagation direction of wind-induced waves. Observations from modern examples show that wave-dominated deposits commonly exist on one side of the lake, and their sedimentary processes are completely distinct from those on the opposite side. However, equivalent deposits have seldom been identified from subsurface data. We present an ancient example from the Upper Tongbomiao Formation in the Tanan Depression (Tamtsag Basin, Mongolia), which was previously interpreted as a fan-delta depositional system. Based on extensive core investigations, eighteen lithofacies, six lithofacies associations and two genetic deposition systems are identified, and a new sedimentological interpretation is proposed comprising a wave-dominated clastic littoral system in the western half-graben dip slope and a fluvial-dominated fan-delta system in the eastern half-graben. Sediments within the eastern half-graben unit include braidplain, fan-delta front and prodelta environments, while those within the western half-graben dip slope unit comprise dominantly alluvial fan, wave-reworked beach, storm-affected shoreface and offshore sediments. The strikes of the sediments in the western half-graben dip slope unit are parallel to the westward shoreline trend, while the progradation direction of sediments in the eastern half-graben unit is perpendicular to the eastern shoreline. This indicates approximately northwestward-propagating waves that were possibly driven by southeasterly winds, which has implications for understanding the prevailing wind direction in Northeast Asia during the depositional period. Other factors contributing to the preservation of these two distinct sedimentary systems are the paleotopography and subsequent climate shift towards more humid climatic conditions which intensified sediment supply and hydrodynamic conditions that were able to rework the sediments.

Natural soils often exhibit rotated transverse anisotropy due to various geological processes (e.g., tectonic movement, filling and soil deposition), and the trend of soil strength usually changes with depth. This study combines rotated transverse anisotropy with non-stationary random field (RF) to investigate the reliability and failure mechanism of a slope under undrained conditions. Two scenarios of non-stationary RF are considered: (a) the trend of soil strength increases along depth; (b) the trend increases along the direction perpendicular to bedding. It is found that the expected performance levels of slope reliability would be significantly different under different directions of the trend. When the undrained shear strength increases along the direction perpendicular to bedding, the changes of slope reliability and sliding consequence would be sensitive to the dip angle of strata. Besides, the failure mechanism can be affected by the direction of the trend and strata orientation. Generally, shallow failure is more likely to occur on the dip slope when soil strength increases along the direction perpendicular to bedding, while for reverse slope with soil strength increasing perpendicularly to the bedding, deep failure mechanism is significantly dominant.

A natural hillslope developing into a landslide shows ground cracks and topographic deformation. Geomorphological and subsurface investigations using appropriate methodology are essential to understand the failure mechanisms and stability of a hillslope. Huafan University campus located on a dip slope in northern Taiwan is facing a potential landslide hazard. Slope movement was detected through the development of ground cracks and persistent deformation of campus buildings and facilities. To monitor the sliding behavior of the dip slope, a nail network consisting of 144 ground monitoring points was set in 2001, and its coordinates were measured using conventional traverse surveying twice a year until 2017. The 17-year surficial surveying results were presented as a time series of displacements with constraints of geometry and distribution of ground cracks and underground observations. The long-term surveying results reveal multiple potential sliding blocks within the Huafan University campus. A model of landslide movement with a listric sliding surface is proposed. Additionally, from the velocity field derived from the monitoring points, the horizontal strain rates of the slope are estimated. The pattern of strain rates indicates that a plausible fault passing through the campus may have affected the movement of the dip slope. The long-term surface monitoring of a potential landslide slope in this study provides a reliable and economical way to understand the mechanism of movement behavior of the slope and evaluate slope stability.

Large rock avalanches often result in loss of life and catastrophic damage to infrastructure far from their initial failure positions, predominantly due to their tremendous volumes, high velocities and long runouts. Studies of the surface morphologies and internal structures of rock avalanche deposits can reveal evidence of their movement and deposition mechanisms. Through field survey, satellite image interpretation and particle-size distribution analysis, we studied the ancient, long-runout Linka rock avalanche, which is next to the Nujiang River, southeast Tibetan Plateau. The Linka rock avalanche, with a source volume of ~310 Mm3 originated from a high, steep dip slope and then transformed into a channelized rock avalanche, showing high mobility with a superelevation back-calculated maximal velocity of 42 m/s, a travel distance of ~6200 m and a Fahrboschung of 0.24. The slope failure sequence consisted of an initial failure of an outer limestone slab and a second failure of an inner sandstone slab. The limestone avalanche had 2 or 3 surges, while the sandstone avalanche probably had only one surge. The high mobility of the Linka rock avalanche predominantly resulted from a buckling failure occurred on a high relief source, low-energy dissipation during the channelized flow, intensive rock fragmentation in the basal facies and possible water lubrication when propagating bi-directionally along the Waqu River. Our findings for the Linka rock avalanche support previous knowledge that multiple mechanisms have different roles at different stages in a long runout rock avalanche.

Geometry of planner geological structures can interact with topographic slope and cause different types of slope failure (e.g. wedge failure, dip slope failure, and toppling etc.). This study focus on how the tectonic foliation influences the landslide pattern in the southern Central Range of Taiwan. The tectonic foliations in this area range from pencil cleavage to schistosity depending on the increasing of metamorphic grade, and different foliations have different influences on the landslide behaviors. To describe the relation between foliation and topographic slope, we create the θ D value as the angle between the foliation dip direction azimuth and the topographic downslope direction azimuth at a given location. The location of landslides in the area with pencil cleavage has no preferential θ D value, and it suggests the landslide distribution has no correlation with foliation. The location of landslides in the area with well-developed slaty cleavage is mostly in the lower θ D value, which suggests the landslides are more likely located in the area where the foliation dip direction is parallel to the topographic downslope direction. The location of landslide in the area with schistosity is mostly in the high θ D value area, which suggests the landslides are more likely located in the area where the foliation dip direction is opposite to the topographic downslope direction.

A consequent slope comprises weak planes in the same dip direction along a slope face. This study investigated scale effects on the gravitational deformation of consequent slopes. A series of centrifuge model tests under simplified environmental conditions were performed. Particle image velocimetry (PIV) was then adopted to evaluate the displacement distribution from the centrifuge model test results. On the basis of the PIV results, the relationship between slope deformation and surface settlement was investigated. Subsequently, the discrete element method (DEM) was used to execute simulations to provide detailed descriptions of the crack development and failure mechanisms associated with consequent slopes at different scales. The results of this study are summarized as follows. (1) The slopes exhibited similar deformation patterns in the centrifuge model tests. As the gravitational force increased, the magnitude of slope deformation increased significantly. (2) A modified dimensional relationship of material parameters was proposed for DEM simulation. According to this relationship, the simulated deformation patterns were in strong agreement with the actual deformations at various slope scales. (3) According to the DEM simulations, for the slopes with the same slope and weak plane angles, more cracks and displacements were generated in the higher slopes, leading to a greater sliding volume.

The left bank of the cushion pond of Baihetan hydropower station is a slant and dip slope. The gently inclined intra-layer fault zones, the steep-dip faults and the unloading fissures cutting the slope to form several potentially unstable blocks. The computational results show that the stabilities of the blocks are controlled by inclined intra-layer fault zones. A method of treatment applying deep replacement caverns and load-reduction excavation was proposed to reinforce the unstable blocks. In order to study the reinforcement mechanism of the deep replacement caverns for the giant slope blocks controlled by inclined intra-layer fault zones, the 3D simulation analysis of the slope treatment construction was carried out by use of FLAC3D software, and a 3D geo-mechanical model was developed to carry out experimental research. The results of the calculation and experiment show that the deep concrete replacement caverns effectively control the shear and sliding deformation of the bottom slide surface and improve the stability of the blocks combined by structural surfaces. In the process of slope strength reduction and overloading, the slope deformation and cracking are gradually extended from the surface to the inner part, and shear stresses of the front deep replacement cavern are the largest of all the caverns. Therefore, it is more beneficial to control the deformation of the slope and improve the stability of the giant blocks by increasing the size of the front deep replacement cavern. The research results have important guiding significance for the reinforcement treatment of the giant blocks in the left bank of Baihetan cushion pond and similar projects.

Due to the great difficulty of monitoring surface and underground runoff and sediment yield directly, the surface and underground hydrological processes associated with soil leakage loss in karst trough valleys remain unknown. The objective of this study was to analyse the role of the rock dip angle in the water and soil leakage loss processes, to assess the characteristics of surface and underground runoff and soil erosion and to investigate their conversion relationships using rainfall experiments. The results showed the following. i) At a steep rock dip angle (60°), the underground runoff yield had a shorter stabilization time than the surface runoff yield and that the underground runoff coefficient of the dip slope exceeded 0.5. ii) The surface sediment yield could be divided into the suspended load and the bed load and the underground sediment yield included only the suspended load. On the anti-dip slope, the surface erosion modulus was 0.83–2.50 times the underground erosion modulus. iii) The surface and underground cumulative runoff was linearly correlated with the cumulative sediment yield. The rock dip angle had a significant quadratic relationship with the surface and underground runoff and sediment yield. These results improve the understanding of the surface-underground runoff and soil erosion processes and have significance for preventing water and soil leakage loss on the slopes of karst trough valleys.

Rock dip angle plays a significant role in surface hydraulic characteristics and leads to different spatial distribution of water and soil loss in Karst Trough Valleys. In this study, the rock dip angle effect on the hydraulic characteristics and soil detachment rate on dip/anti-dip slopes was explored via rainfall simulations and a steel experimental flume. The rainfall intensities ranged from 30 to 90 mm·h−1, and the rock dip angles varied from 10° to 60°. The results revealed that i) surface runoff on the dip slope was higher than that on the anti-dip slope, whereas underground runoff presented opposite results. The 30° rock dip angle presented the critical flow velocity for the anti-dip slope, and the flow velocity reduced as the rock dip angle of the dip slope increased. ii) Laminar water flow occurred on the dip/anti-dip slope (Re was

The Huafan University campus is located in the Ta-Lun Shan area in northern Taiwan, which is characterized by a dip-slope covered by colluvium soil of various depths. For slope disaster prevention, a monitoring system was constructed that consisted of inclinometers, tiltmeters, crack gages, groundwater level observation wells, settlement and displacement observation marks, rebar strain gages, concrete strain gages, and rain gages. The monitoring data derived from hundreds of settlement and displacement observation marks were analyzed and compared with the displacement recorded by inclinometers. The analysis results revealed that the maximum settlement and displacement were concentrated on the areas around the Hui-Tsui, Zhi-An, and Wu-Ming Buildings and coincided with periods of heavy rainfall. The computer program STABL was applied for slope stability analysis and modeling of slope failure. For prevention of slope instability, a drainage system and tieback anchors with additional stability measures were proposed to discharge excess groundwater following rainfall. Finally, threshold value curves of rainfall based on slope displacement were proposed. The curves can be applied for predicting slope stability when typhoons are expected to bring heavy rainfall and should be significant in slope disaster prevention.

Morphometric analysis and flash floods assessment were conducted for the watersheds of Ras En Naqb escarpment, south Jordan. The study area comprises of twelve small watersheds occupying the faulted-erosional slopes, and the dip slopes. The drainage network shows that dendritic and sub-dendritic patterns dominated the dip slopes, whereas trellis pattern characterized the faulted-erosional slopes. Stream orders range from fourth to sixth order. The mean bifurcation ratios vary between 4.2 and 5.38 for the dip slope basins, and between 3.5 and 5.0 for the faulted-erosional slope watersheds, indicating a noticeable influence of structural disturbances (i.e., faulting and uplifting), and rejuvenation of drainage networks. All watersheds have short basin lengths, ranging from 23.8 km to 42.2 km for the dip slope basins, and between 15.3 km and 45.4 km for the faulted-erosional slope catchments. This is indicative of high flooding susceptibility associated with heavy rainstorms of short duration. The circularity ratios range from 0.177 to 0.704 which denote that the catchments are moderately circular on the faulted-erosional slopes, and to some extent elongated on the dip slopes. The length of overland flow values ranges from 0.854 to 0.924 for the dip slope catchments, whereas LO values for the faulted-erosional slopes vary from 0.793 to 0.945 denoting steep slopes and shorter paths on both dip slope and faulted-erosional slope watersheds. Values of stream frequency range from 1.509 to 1.692 for the dip slope, and from 1.688 to 2.0 for the faulted-erosional slope catchments. FS values are also indicative of slope steepness, low infiltration rate, and high flooding potential. The watersheds of the dip slopes show lower values of form factor varying from 0.079 to 0.364, indicating elongated shape and suggesting a relatively flat hydrograph peak for longer duration. Similarly, values of Dd are high for catchments on the dip slope basins (1.709 - 1.85) and the faulted-erosional slope watersheds (1.587 - 2.0) indicating highly dissected topography, high surface runoff, low infiltration rate, and consequently high flooding potential. Furthermore, high relief values exist, ranging from 388 m to 714 m for the dip slope basins, and from 421 m to 846 m for the faulted-erosional slope catchments indicting high relief and steep slopes. Morphometric analysis, and flash flood assessment suggest that ten watersheds (83.3%) are categorized under high and intermediate flooding susceptibility, and the faulted-erosional slope catchments are more hazardous in terms of flooding. Thus the protection of Ma’an, El Jafr rural Bedouin settlements, and Amman-Aqaba highway from recurrent flooding is essential to ensure sustainable future development in Ras En Naqb-Ma’an area.

The first area is rock instability in conglomerates walls, and the second area is soil instability in a slope composed of sand gravel and shale in the south of the study area. In the first area, rock slopes were studied by fractures condition, slope morphology, measured engineering features of rocks, and then interpreted by Dips software to define the fracture types for analysis of block toppling. The rock slope of the area was modeled by Rock plan by adding water penetration and earthquake. The results showed that in dry condition these slopes were stable, but by penetrating water and saturation of the open spaces of the fractures, the block toppling will occur. Also, seismic activities in the area caused the instability of the slopes, and landslide will happen. In the second area, landslides were spoon-shaped type. To investigate the soil slope stability, the condition of slope was modeled by using soil engineering properties and measuring the morphological condition of the slope such as slope dip, layers thickness, layers dip and slope elevation. It was shown instability of the soil slopes. To stabilize the sliding areas, the dip changing method and formation of stepped-style slope were done. However, the new condition changed the formation of sliding areas in the upper most part of the stairs. The retaining walls formed from the local materials were applied to the slope to provide the desire stability.

Toppling failure of rock slopes is a complicated mode due to a combination of both continuous and discontinuous deformation, especially in dealing with anti-dip rock slopes. In this paper, a novel continuum-based discrete element method (CDEM), which is useful in modeling the entire progressive process from continuous to discontinuous deformation, is proposed to analyze the deformation characteristics, the failure mechanism and the evolution process of a large-scale open pit slope with a typical anti-dip structure. To simulate the slope deformation, the shear strength reduction method (SSR) is adopted to represent the strength degradation of rock mass in the deterioration process. The simulated results are validated using data obtained from a field investigation and continuous monitoring by employing an advanced remote sensing technique called ground-based interferometric synthetic aperture radar (GB-InSAR). To analyze the evolution trend of the anti-dip slope, the subsequent toppling failure mode is predicted using the validated CDEM models. Based on a case study of a slope at the Fushun open pit mine (in Fushun, China), the unique geological structure with various joints and discontinuities, ground-water, intense rainfall, and mining activities are identified as the main triggers for different failure stages. The comparison between the field data and the simulation shows that CDEM accurately depicts the rock deformation and the failure pattern of the studied slope. The proposed numerical modeling techniques can be used for predicting failures of other similar excavated rock slopes. The simulated evolution process and the recorded deformation patterns help engineers to gain a better understanding of rock mass movement of anti-dip slopes, and the presented methodology could be utilized for similar studies and engineering designs. (C) 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

We explore the controls of the litho-tectonic architecture on the erosional flux in the 370-km2 Glogn basin (European Alps). In this basin, the bedding and schistosity of the bedrock dip parallel to the topographic slope on the NW valley flank, leading to a non-dip slope situation on the opposite SE valley side. While the dip slope condition has promoted the occurrence of landslides (e.g. the c. 30-km2 deep-seated Lumnezia landslide), the opposite non-dip slope side of the valley hosts >100-m-deeply incised tributary streams. 10Be concentrations of stream sediments yield catchment-averaged denudation rates that vary between 0.27 ± 0.03 and 2.19 ± 0.37 mm a−1, while the spatially averaged denudation rate of the entire basin is 1.99 ± 0.34 mm a−1. Our 10Be-based approach reveals that the Lumnezia landslide front contributes c. 30–65% of the entire sediment budget, although it covers

Characteristic landscapes (e.g., cuesta, cliff and overhang of caprock, or stepped terrain) formed by differential erosion can be found in areas composed of variable geology exhibiting different resistances to weathering. Parallel retreat of slopes, defined as recession of slopes without changes in their topography, is sometimes observed on slopes composed of multiple strata. However, the conditions needed for such parallel retreat have not yet been sufficiently clarified. In this study, we elucidated the conditions for parallel retreat of rock slopes composed of alternating layers using a geometric method. In addition, to evaluate whether various rock slopes fulfilled the conditions for parallel retreat, we analyzed topographic data obtained from periodic measurement of rock slopes in the Aka-kuzure landslide, central Japan. Our geometric analysis of the two-dimensional slopes indicates that dip angle, slope gradient, and erosion rate are the factors that determine parallel retreat conditions. However, dip angle does not significantly affect parallel retreat conditions in the case of steep back slopes (slope gradient > 40°). In contrast, dip angle is an important factor when we consider the parallel retreat conditions in dip slopes and gentler back slopes (slope gradient

The relationship between large deep-seated landslides and geologic structures characteristic of accretionary complexes were examined in the Chichibu belt on the eastern part of the Kii Peninsula, central Japan. In the Chichibu belt, bedrock consists of Jurassic accretionary complexes composed of basalt, limestone, chert, Permian–Triassic boundary siliceous shale (PTBS), mudstone, sandstone, and melanges with sheared shale matrices. The landslides treated in this paper include prehistoric examples involving volumes greater than one million cubic meters (located in the Karako, Sono, Kasagi, and Aso areas), and the modern Kasugadani landslide that was triggered by the Typhoon Meari on 29–30 September 2004. The age of the landslide in the Sono area was estimated at 20,440 ± 70 BP and 20,820 ± 70 BP based on AMS-14C ages of wood fragments embedded in the dammed lake sediments, while ages of the other prehistoric slides are not known. All of the landslides occurred on dip slopes. The bedding, foliation, and fault planes of the rocks in the area generally trend E–W and dip to the north, although those in the Kasugadani area dip to the south as a result of local folding. The landslides selectively slid along the planes of (1) PTBS horizons that were less strong than those of underlying chert, (2) lithologic boundaries with physical contrasts, or (3) boundary faults between melange units. These geologic structures, including the north-dipping bedding/cleavage/fault planes, were formed during Jurassic subduction–accretion and later uplift processes. The movement directions estimated for the 269 landslides and unstable slopes in this region are also N–NNE, and their slip planes are subparallel to the general bedding/cleavage planes in this area. Thus, future slides are also likely to occur on north-facing slopes.

Piramagroon-Kani Khan (PK) valley runs parallel to Pira Magrun and Surdash anticlines almost in NW- SE trend and merges with the Lesser Zab River 9 kms southeast of Dokan town. The valley runs within the soft rocks of Shiranish, Tanjero and Kolosh formations. The valley bottom is gently sloping plain which divided longitudinally by Charmaga stream into two asymmetrical parts (northeast and southwest parts). The northeast part is wider than the other one mostly covered by Recent and Pleistocene coarse alluvium with a thickness of 1-20meters. The southwestern part is relatively narrow and mainly covered by slide debris and dislocated blocks of Sinjar Formation. Northern eastern side is formed by differential erosion and its slope is the dip slope since it nearly coincides with the dip of the strata of the Kometan and Qamchuqa Formations. The southwestern side is scarp slope which has lesser elevation and formed mainly by sliding processes and manly covered by slide debris. The surface of this part has hilly and hummocky topography. The alluviums are belonging to debris flow and river bed deposits. According to age of deposition, the alluvium is grouped in two types which are Holocene (Recent) and Pleistocene types. The first type has mainly caliber of gravels and sand which deposited on the valley bottom plains and suitable for cultivating. The second type has coarser grain sizes which consist of a mixture of blocks, boulder and graves. This type exists either on the hills or it form as isolated plateaus that about 30 high from the surrounding. Now, only as a small or large pachy remnant on the top of ridges and hills or exist as small plateaus which are transformed these elevated lands due to inversion of topography by erosion and weathering.

The traditional slope stability analysis used the Factor of Safety (FS) from the Limit Equilibrium Theory as the determinant. If the FS was greater than 1, it was considered as “safe” and variables or parameters of uncertainty in the analysis model were not considered. The objective of research was to analyze the stability of natural slope, in consideration of characteristics of rock layers and the variability of pre-stressing force. By sensitivity and uncertainty analysis, the result showed the sensitivity for pre-stressing force of rock anchor was significantly smaller than the cohesive (c) of rock layer and the varying influence of the friction angle (ϕ) in rock layers. In addition, the immersion by water at the natural slope would weaken the rock layers, in which the cohesion c was reduced to 6 kPa and the friction angle ϕ was decreased below 14°, and it started to show instability and failure in the balance as FS became smaller than 1. The failure rate to the slope could be as high as 50%. By stabilizing with a rock anchor, the failure rate could be reduced below 3%, greatly improving the stability and the reliability of the slope.

“Triangle zone” geometry is well established in thrust tectonics, where the leading edge of a frontal thrust branches backward onto a hinterland-directed roof thrust, and the triangle zone thus formed defines the thrust system’s leading edge. Similar geometries occur in extension and inversion settings, where a triangle zone can form between a deep-seated master fault and a roof fault or backthrust located in a hanging-wall detachment. In basement-controlled extension, triangle zone development can occur when the shear strength of the master fault plane in the zone above a hanging-wall detachment cutoff exceeds that of a new or reactivated antithetic fault detaching on the hanging-wall dip slope. This structural style is characterized by pronounced hanging-wall synclines linked to detached extensional faults higher up the hanging-wall dip slopes. The same principles apply during early phases of inversion tectonics. The part of the master fault that is above the hanging-wall detachment cutoff may constitute a buttress that causes displacement to backthrust along any available detachment into accommodation structures such as emergent ramps. This structural style is characterized by compressional structures within the graben while there is minor or even no sign of inversion on the graben margin faults. These geometries could be accounted for by other processes, for example, localized deep-seated fault-controlled structures within graben, or salt redistribution. However, fieldwork and analog models demonstrate the admissibility of triangle zone kinematics across a range of tectonic settings in the presence of detachment layers that are thin relative to the overall stratigraphy — typically tens to hundreds of meters in thickness. These models can guide seismic interpretation of unusual fold structures in extensional and inverted graben. Seismic interpretation examples were evaluated from the North Sea and Saudi Arabia.

Based on numerical simulation, this study investigates the triggering factors and evolution of deep-seated gravitational deformation in a dip-slope consisting of a shale-dominated sequence of sediments. Results from continuum-based (finite difference) numerical modeling demonstrate that long-term strength degradation of a rock mass is a prerequisite for the development of gravitational slope deformation, and that river incision, resulting in change of slope geometry and corresponding stress concentration and redistribution, is a major driving mechanism for the progressive evolution of deep-seated gravitational slope deformation (DSGSD). Numerical simulation considering the influence of weak planes indicates that the bedding planes control the strength of rock mass and form a structural constraint on the development of gravitational slope deformation. A satisfactory correlation between the distribution of numerically simulated plastic shear bands and weak zones in drill cores demonstrates that the weak zones within the slope are formed due to gravitational slope deformation. Furthermore, numerical simulation shows a link between geomorphological development and internal deformation of the slope, which aids in the understanding of relationships between interior deformation of the slope, the exterior geomorphology and related effect factors including river incision and strength degradation.

The paper discusses structural considerations relating to landform development on Mt. Babia Góra (1,725 m a.s.l.), the highest massif in the flysch section of the Western Carpathian Mountains. The Babia Góra massif consists of folded Palaeogene-age sediments, including resistant Magura sandstone and less resistant sub-Magura layers, with numerous tectonic faults. The area has inverse-type geomorphology. The monoclinal ridge of the massif itself consists of the resistant Magura sandstone dipping southwards. Since the Miocene, the development of the massif’s relief has involved a number of processes, including: tectonic uplifting, removal of a thick layer of rocks, exposure of sub-Magura layers over a large area, the staged development of valleys dissecting the pediments surrounding the ever higher ridge, and slope retreat due to deep landsliding. Axes of linear terrain forms, escarpments of landslide scars and of headwater areas follow two main intersecting fracture lines present within the massif. Large quantities of colluvial material are transported away from the massif along these lines. The development of the land relief has led to the elongation of slopes as local elevation differences increased. Landsliding has developed in an uphill direction, which means that the youngest relief is observed on the highest sections of steep slopes. The development of the massif’s northern slope, which has formed a high and precipitous cuesta, began to accelerate only after a nearly complete exposure of the sub-Magura layers at its foot. Following this exposure the profile of the massif’s N-S cross-section has begun to become asymmetrical. With time, the degree of general remodelling of the massif has tended to decrease. As a result, the geomorphological contrast between the northern and southern sides of the massif has become well established. The description of the probable development of the Babia Góra relief is based on the author’s fieldwork, an analysis of geological maps and aerial photos, and on literature.

This study proposed an in-depth multiscale analysis procedure to identify the dip slope area and assess dip slope stability and influencing area. The proposed analysis procedure comprised five stages: (1) identifying the potential area of a dip slope, (2) analyzing the possible failure types of the dip slope, (3) evaluating slope activity, (4) analyzing dip slope stability under the influence of possible triggering factors, and (5) assessment of the deformation and deposition area. To validate the proposed procedure, the Chaochouhu region of Taiwan was analyzed as a dip slope case. In stages (1) to (3), the scale of the utilized map and the precision of associated data were evaluated to identify the potential area of a dip slope, the possible failure types, and the activity of each slope unit. In stages (4) and (5), the processes of deformation and sliding in a high-activity slope unit were simulated using the discrete element method. The numerical model was first verified using in-situ monitoring data obtained from inclinometers. Subsequently, the model was used to predict the slope behavior under conditions of wetting deterioration of geomaterial. The multiscale analysis revealed comprehensive information regarding the dip slope. The application of the proposed approach would be useful to civil engineers for evaluating dip slope stability as well as to relevant authorities for planning hazard mitigation strategies.

Rockslides commonly form a shear zone to accommodate their displacements. As such, the landslide history and mechanism must be recorded in the structural features of the shear zone. We investigated the basal shear zone of a 60-m-thick rockslide body with a lateral displacement of 200 m on a dip slope and found the evolutionary mechanisms of a basal shear zone of a rockslide. A basal shear zone on a dip slope is initiated along a lithologic boundary that is characterized by a high competency contrast, such as pelitic rock and greenstone or chert, and develops in the weaker rock, which was pelitic rock in the present study. The basal shear zone first develops with fracture of the rock mass, followed by intragranular fracturing of rock fragments. Shear strain by landslide gradually localizes to a narrow zone in the fractured zone to form a clayey layer by cataclasis of rock fragments. The rock fragments in the clayey layer become rounded by attrition, and the clayey layer finally obtains shear surfaces with slickensides.