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Generally all orogenic ultrapotassic rocks are formed after melting of metasomatized sub-continental lithospheric mantle via subducted crustal mica-bearing lithologies. Here we present another possible model, based on the study of the small Stomanovo ultrapotassic monzonite porphyry intrusion in the Central Rhodope Massif, Bulgaria. The monzonite dated at 30.50 ± 0.46 Ma is intruded into the voluminous Oligocene (31.63 ± 0.40 Ma) Bratsigovo–Dospat ignimbrite. The monzonite hosts both normally and reversely zoned clinopyroxene phenocrysts. The normally zoned clinopyroxene is characterized by gradually diminishing core-to-rim Mg no. (89–74), whereas the reversely zoned clinopyroxene has green Fe-rich cores (Mg no. 71–55) mantled by normally zoned clinopyroxene (Mg no. 87–74). Neither the core of the normally zoned clinopyroxene nor the Fe-rich green cores are in equilibrium with the host monzonite. This ultrapotassic monzonite shows more radiogenic Sr isotopes ((87Sr/86Sr)i= 0.71066) and ϵNd(t) = −7.8 to −8.0 that are distinct from the host ignimbrites with (87Sr/86Sr)i= 0.70917–0.70927 and ϵNd(t) = −4.6 to −6.5. The Sr–Nd isotopic data and the presence of copious zircon xenocrysts from the underlying metamorphic basement suggest extensive crustal assimilation. Our observations indicate that the Stomanovo ultrapotassic monzonite formed after extensive lower or middle crustal fractional crystallization from an evolved magma producing cumulates. The process was followed by hybridization with primitive mantle-derived magma and subsequent continuous crustal contamination. We suggest that instead of inheriting their high K2O and large-ion lithophile element enrichments from slab-derived/metasomatic fluids, the Stomanovo ultrapotassic monzonite may owe some of its unusually high alkalinity to the assimilation of potassium-rich phases from the Rhodope Massif basement rocks.

The chemical compositions of tephra shards are widely utilised in a myriad of disciplines, including volcanology, petrology, tephrochronology, palaeoecology and climate studies. Previous research has raised concerns over the possible chemical alteration of microscopic (

Radiogenic and noble gas isotopes have been integral for demonstrating the existence, source, and age of (geo) chemical reservoirs in the mantle, yet, the volatile element composition of the Earth’s interior remains poorly characterized. Boron isotopes have the potential to constrain the processes that generate distinct mantle reservoirs, as they fractionate strongly at the surface of the Earth and during subduction but are little perturbed during high-temperature mantle processes, and so can inform our understanding of mantle volatile cycling. Here, we present the largest, internally consistent, high-precision B isotope dataset from ocean island basalt (OIB) glasses and olivine-hosted melt inclusions measured by Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) to date, including new data derived from the Pitcairn Islands, Tristan da Cunha, St. Helena, Ascension Island, the MacDonald (Ra) Seamount, and Fogo (Cape Verde Islands) in addition to previously published data from La Reunion, La Palma (Canary Islands), Iceland, and Hawai’i. This dataset allows a comparison of ocean island basalts that contain heterogeneous recycled components (e.g., Pitcairn Islands) to those with primordial components (e.g., La Reunion) in their sources. We focus on basaltic glass and melt inclusions (>6 wt% MgO) as they are least affected by shallow differentiation and assimilation processes. We find that our new OIB data show a limited spread in average δ11B (−5.9 ± 3.0‰ to −10.8 ± 0.7‰), which is smaller compared to previous OIB studies. These data generally overlap with mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB; −7.1 ± 0.9‰) and display lighter values when compared to mafic arc magmas (∼−9 to +20‰). Importantly, some trace element enriched OIB endmembers display lighter δ11B values and lower B/P and B/Zr, indicative of a source with lower B concentrations relative to the primordial mantle. This suggests that the deeper mantle is becoming increasingly B-depleted over time because boron is effectively stripped from recycled lithologies during subduction and slab dehydration. In addition, the results highlight the decoupling of B isotopes from radiogenic (Sr, Pb) isotopes providing a new perspective on volatile recycling.

rom ca. 50 Ma to present, the western Pacific plate has been subducting under the Philippine Sea plate, forming the oceanic Izu-Bonin-Mariana (IBM) subduction system. It is the only known location where subduction zone products are presently being transported to the surface by serpentinite-mud volcanoes. A large serpentine mud “volcano” forms the South Chamorro Seamount and was successfully drilled by ODP during Leg 195. This returned mostly partially serpentinized harzburgites enclosed in serpentinite muds. In addition, limited numbers of small (1 mm–1 cm) fragments of rare blueschists were also discovered. U–Pb dating of zircon and rutile from one of these blueschist clasts give ages of 51.1 ± 1.2 Ma and 47.5 ± 2.0 Ma, respectively. These are interpreted to date prograde high-pressure metamorphism. Mineral equilibria modelling of the blueschist clast suggests the mineral assemblage formed at conditions of ∼1.6 GPa and ∼590 °C. We interpret that this high-pressure assemblage formed at a depth of ∼50 km within the subduction channel and was subsequently exhumed and entrained into the South Chamorro serpentinite volcano system at depths of ∼27 km. Consequently, we propose that the material erupted from the South Chamarro Seamount may be sampling far greater depths within the Mariana subduction system than previously thought. The apparent thermal gradient implied by the pressure–temperature modelling (∼370 °C/GPa) is slightly warmer than that predicted by typical subduction channel numerical models and other blueschists worldwide. The age of the blueschist suggests it formed during the arc initiation stages of the proto-Izu-Bonin-Mariana arc, with the P–T conditions recording thermally elevated conditions during initial stages of western Pacific plate subduction. This indicates the blueschist had prolonged residence time in the stable forearc as the system underwent east-directed rollback. The Mariana blueschist shows that subduction products can remain entrained in subduction channels for many millions of years prior to exhumation. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Boron has become the principle proxy for the release of seawater-derived fluids into arc volcanics, linked to cross-arc variations in boron content and isotopic ratio. Because all ocean floor serpentinites so far analysed are strongly enriched in boron, it is generally assumed that if the uppermost slab mantle is hydrated, it will also be enriched in boron. Here we present the first measurements of boron and boron isotopes in fast-spread oceanic gabbros in the Pacific, showing strong take-up of seawater-derived boron during alteration. We show that in one-pass hydration of the upper mantle, as proposed for bend fault serpentinisation, boron will not reach the hydrated slab mantle. Only prolonged hydrothermal circulation, for example in a long-lived transform fault, can add significant boron to the slab mantle. We conclude that hydrated mantle in subducting slabs will only rarely contribute to boron enrichment in arc volcanics, or to deep mantle recycling., Boron is one of the main proxies for seawater-derived fluids in subduction zone volcanics and it is vital to characterise the location and concentration of boron in the oceanic lithosphere. Here the authors show that boron concentration in the mantle of downgoing slabs has been overestimated, because boron is strongly decoupled from water in the hydration process.

Large (VEI= 4-6) Quaternary explosive eruptions have repeatedly occurred in Armenia and the neighboring territories. Worth noting are the Plinian eruptions of Aragats stratovolcano (4096m), located in the vicinity of the Armenian capital city Yerevan (pop. >1 million) and producing lava flows variable in composition and size, pyroclastic density currents (PDCs) and fallout deposits (Connor et al., 2011; Gevorgyan et al., 2020). The youngest lavas from Aragats are 0.52 million years (myr) old and the youngest ignimbrites are 0.65 myr old. (Connor et al., 2011, Gevorgyan et al., 2020).Here we present some features of a violent explosive Plinian eruption (VEI=4) from the relatively small, subsidiary Irind vent on the slopes of Aragats stratovolcano. We report results from newly mapped thick pumice fall deposits and pumice-rich welded lapilli-tuff and vitrophyres. Formation of up to ~10 m thick pumice fall deposits is related to a sustained Plinian eruption, while the formation of overlaying pumice tuffs (age= 0.490±0.028 M.yrs, Connor et al., 2011) and vitrophyre cover is interpreted as result of collapse of the eruption column due to a decrease of the magma supply.Following the pyroclastic eruption, a voluminous (2.9-3.6 km3) effusive eruption of Irind created up to 120 m thick trachydacite lava flows that extended 18 km from the vent. Such long and thick lava flows are not typical for viscous felsic lavas. The Irind eruption products are characterized by a plagioclase-two pyroxene mineral association that is atypical for Aragats. The Irind magmas are trachydacitic (SiO2= 66 wt; MgO= 0.7 wt%) with high- K2O contents (5.2 wt%) and enrichments in U, Th, LILE and LREE compared to Aragats. Geothermobarometry and hygrometry based on detailed textural analysis and mineral chemistry (Cpx, Opx, plagioclase, glass) reveals that Irind magmas also have elevated H2O, increased alkalinity and high T (~970 °C)- all features capable to generate magmas with much lower viscosity (4.2–4.5 log η Pa·s) in respect to typical dacites.Our results support the view that often small eruptive vents (Irind) on the slopes of large coeval stratovolcanoes (Aragats) are not necessarily tapping their voluminous magma mushes underneath and are capable to deliver independent Plinian eruptions. We speculate that these are triggered by intrusions of hot, volatile-rich, alkaline felsic magmas, presumably emplaced fast, similar to the Chaiten eruption in 2008, and did not mix well with the otherwise dominant and older magmatic system under Aragats.ReferencesConnor C., Connor L., Halama, R., Meliksetian, K., Savov, I., 2011. Volcanic Hazard Assessment of the Armenia Nuclear Power Plant Site, Final Report, 278 pp.Gevorgyan, H., Breitkreuz, C., Meliksetian, K, et al., 2020. Quaternary ring plain- and valley-confined pyroclastic deposits of Aragats stratovolcano (Lesser Caucasus): Lithofacies, geochronology and eruption history, JVGR 401, 1-22.

Exposed plumbing systems provide important insight into crystallization and differentiation in shallow sills beneath volcanic fields. We use whole rock major element, trace element and radiogenic isotopic compositions, along with mineral geochemical data on 125 samples to examine the conditions of melt differentiation in shallow sills from the exposed 4-Ma-old San Rafael subvolcanic field (SRVF), Utah. The field consists of ∼2000 dikes, 12 sills and 63 well preserved volcanic conduits. Intrusive rocks consist of mainly fine-grained trachybasalts and coarse-grained syenites, which are alkaline, comagmatic and enriched in Ba, Sr and LREE. Within sills, syenite is found as veins, lenses, and sheets totally enveloped by the basalt. The SRVF intrusions have geochemical signatures of both enriched sub-continental lithospheric and asthenospheric mantle sources. We estimate partial melting occurred between 1·2 and 1·9 GPa (50–70 km), with mantle potential temperatures in the range 1260–1326 ± 25°C, consistent with those estimated for volcanic rocks erupted on the Colorado Plateau. Geobarometry results based on clinopyroxene chemistry indicate that (1) basalt crystallized during ascent from at least 40 km deep with limited lithospheric storage, and (2) syenites crystallized only in the sills, ∼1 km below the surface. San Rafael mafic magma was emplaced in sills and started to crystallize inward from the sill margins. Densities of basalt and syenite at solidus temperatures are 2·6 and 2·4 g/cc, respectively, with similar viscosities of ∼150 Pa s. Petrographic observations and physical properties suggest that syenite can be physically separated from basalt by crystal compaction and segregation of the tephrophonolitic residual liquid out of the basaltic crystal mush after reaching 30–45% of crystallization. Each individual sill is 10–50 m thick and would have solidified fairly rapidly (1–30 years), the same order of magnitude as the duration of common monogenetic eruptions. Our estimates imply that differentiation in individual shallow sills may occur during the course of an eruption whose style may vary from effusive to explosive by tapping different magma compositions. Our study shows that basaltic magmas have the potential to differentiate to volatile-rich magma in shallow intrusive systems, which may increase explosivity.

Located in the heart of the Lesser Caucasus mountains, where the Arabian and Eurasian tectonic plates collide, Armenia occupies an exceptional geological position shaped through millions of years of subduction and collision. It is a unique place on the Earth recording extensive intrusive and volcanic activity related to the long‐standing continental convergence. The volcanoes of Armenia provide a rare opportunity to study the sources and processes involved in this unusual type of magmatism. More than 500 Quaternary volcanoes have been mapped in Armenia, most of them formed from single eruptive episodes. Among several large composite volcanoes, the mighty Aragats stands out as the largest volcano in Armenia and the region altogether. Volcanic deposits testify to the range of eruptive styles—from the ignimbrites formed in eruptions as explosive and voluminous as any seen globally in the modern era to the enormous fissure‐fed lava flows that form the Southern Caucasus flood basalt province, the smallest and youngest Large Igneous Province in the world. Several pre‐historical and historical eruptions have been documented, highlighting the potential for future volcanic activity in the region. In recent years, research has focused on the volcanic hazards associated with the Armenian Nuclear Power Plant, located in the foothills of Aragats volcano. This article highlights some of the extraordinary volcanic and intrusive features observed in Armenia and summarizes aspects of recent volcanological and petrological research.

The evidence for periods of increased volcanic activity following deglaciation, such as following ice sheet retreat after the Last Glacial Maximum, has been examined in several formerly glaciated areas, including Iceland, Alaska, and the Andean Southern Volcanic Zone. Here we present new evidence supporting the theory that during episodes of cooling in the Holocene, Icelandic volcanic activity decreased. By examining proximal and distal tephra records from Iceland spanning the last 12,500 years, we link two observed tephra minima to documented periods of climatic cooling and glacial advance, at 8.3 to 8 and 5.2 to 4.9 cal kyr BP. We simulate these periods in atmosphere-ocean and ice sheet models to assess the potential validity of the postglacial ‘unloading effect’ on Icelandic volcanic systems. We conclude that an increase in glacial cover may have decreased shallow magma ascent rates, thus limiting eruption potential and producing apparent quiescent periods in proximal and distal tephra records. However, several major uncertainties remain regarding the theory, including geographical and temporal preservation biases and the importance of any unloading effects against other factors, and these will require more prolonged investigation in future research.

International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP) Expedition 351 ‘Izu–Bonin–Mariana (IBM) Arc Origins’ drilled Site U1438, situated in the northwestern region of the Philippine Sea. Here volcaniclastic sediments and the igneous basement of the proto-IBM volcanic arc were recovered. To gain a better understanding of the magmatic processes and evolution of the proto-IBM arc, we studied melt inclusions hosted in fresh igneous minerals and sampled from 30–40 Myr old deposits, reflecting the maturation of arc volcanism following subduction initiation at 52 Ma. We performed a novel statistical analysis on the major element composition of 237 representative melt inclusions selected from a previously published dataset, covering the full age range between 30 and 40 Ma. In addition, we analysed volatiles (H2O, S, F and Cl) and P2O5 by secondary ion mass spectrometry for a subset of 47 melt inclusions selected from the dataset. Based on statistical analysis of the major element composition of melt inclusions and by considering their trace and volatile element compositions, we distinguished five main clusters of melt inclusions, which can be further separated into a total of eight subclusters. Among the eight subclusters, we identified three major magma types: (1) enriched medium-K magmas, which form a tholeiitic trend (30–38 Ma); (2) enriched medium-K magmas, which form a calc-alkaline trend (30–39 Ma); (3) depleted low-K magmas, which form a calc-alkaline trend (35–40 Ma). We demonstrate the following: (1) the eruption of depleted low-K calc-alkaline magmas occurred prior to 40 Ma and ceased sharply at 35 Ma; (2) the eruption of depleted low-K calc-alkaline magmas, enriched medium-K calc-alkaline magmas and enriched medium-K tholeiitic magmas overlapped between 35 and 38–39 Ma; (3) the eruption of enriched medium-K tholeiitic and enriched medium-K calc-alkaline magmas became predominant thereafter at the proto-IBM arc. Identification of three major magma types is distinct from the previous work, in which enriched medium-K calc-alkaline magmas and depleted low-K calc-alkaline magmas were not identified. This indicates the usefulness of our statistical analysis as a powerful tool to partition a mixture of multivariable geochemical datasets, such as the composition of melt inclusions in this case. Our data suggest that a depleted mantle source had been replaced by an enriched mantle source owing to convection beneath the proto-IBM arc from >40 to 35 Ma. Finally, thermodynamic modelling indicates that the overall geochemical variation of melt inclusions assigned to each cluster can be broadly reproduced either by crystallization differentiation assuming P = 50 MPa (∼2 km deep) and ∼2 wt% H2O (almost saturated H2O content at 50 MPa) or P = 300 MPa (∼15 km deep) and ∼6 wt% H2O (almost saturated H2O content at 300 MPa). Assuming oxygen fugacity (fO2) of log fO2 equal to +1 relative to the nickel–nickel oxide (NNO) buffer best reproduces the overall geochemical variation of melt inclusions, but assuming more oxidizing conditions (log fO2 = +1 to +2 NNO) probably reproduces the geochemical variation of enriched medium-K and calc-alkaline melt inclusions (30–39 Ma).

Argon isotopic analyses were funded by NERC grant to I. Savov, IP-1690-1116. PJS was funded through a NERC studentship as part of the Leeds York Spheres Doctoral Training Partnership (DTP) (grant number NE/L002574/1). Part of the field work and research were supported by base funding of the Institute of Geological Sciences (IGS) and a thematic project by the Science Committee of the Armenian Ministry of Education and Science (project #18 T-1E368). The post-collisional Syunik and Vardenis volcanic highlands, located in the southern Lesser Caucasus mountains (part of the Arabia-Eurasia collision zone) are host to over 200 monogenetic volcanoes, as well as 2 large Quaternary polygenetic volcanoes in the Syunik highland. The latter are overlain by lavas from the monogenetic volcanoes, suggesting there was a transition in the style of volcanic activity from large-volume central vent eruptions to dispersed small-volume eruptions. 12 new high quality 40Ar/39Ar ages are presented here, with 11 ages calculated by step-heating experiments on groundmass separates, and the final age obtained from total fusions of a population of sanidines. All the ages were younger than 1.5 Ma, except for one ignimbrite deposit whose sanidines gave an age of 6 Ma. While the bulk of the exposed products of post-collisional volcanism relate to Pleistocene activity, it is clear there has been active volcanism in the region since at least the late Miocene. All ages for monogenetic volcanoes in the Syunik highland are younger than 1 Ma, but to the north in Vardenis there is geochronological evidence of monogenetic volcanism at 1.4 and 1.3 Ma. An age of 1.3 Ma is determined for a lava flow from one of the polygenetic volcanoes- Tskhouk, and when combined with other ages helps constrain the timing of the polygenetic to monogenetic transition to around 1 Ma. The new ages illustrate a degree of spatio-temporal coupling in the formation of new vents, which could be related to pull-apart basins focussing ascending magmas. This coupling means that future eruptions are particularly likely to occur close to the sites of the most recent Holocene activity. The polygenetic to monogenetic transition is argued to be the result of a decreasing magma supply based on: (i) volume estimates for Holocene eruptions and for all monogenetic volcanoes and their lava flows in Syunik; and (ii) the volcanic stratigraphy of the Lesser Caucasus region which shows late Pliocene- early Pleistocene continental flood basalts being succeeded by a few large andesite-dacite volcanoes and then the most recent deposits consisting of small-volume scoria cones. The Syunik highland has the highest density of monogenetic centres in the Lesser Caucasus, which is taken to indicate this region has the highest magma flux, and was therefore the last location to transition to monogenetic volcanism, which is why the transition is most clearly seen there. There is no evidence from Sr-Nd-B isotope measurements for the exhaustion of fusible slab components in the mantle source, showing that an inherited slab signature can survive for millions of years after the end of subduction. Although volcanism in the Lesser Caucasus is currently waning, a future pulse of activity is possible. Publisher PDF

Fine ash produced during volcanic eruptions can be dispersed over a vast area, where it poses a threat to aviation, human health and infrastructure. We analyse the particle size distributions, geochemistry and glass shard morphology of 19 distal (>1000 km from source) volcanic ash deposits distributed across northern Europe, many geochemically linked to a specific volcanic eruption. The largest glass shards in the cryptotephra deposits were 250 µm (longest axis basis). For the first time, we examine the replicability and reliability of glass shard size measurements from peatland and lake archives. We identify no consistent trend in the vertical sorting of glass shards by size within lake and peat sediments. Measuring the sizes of 100 shards from the vertical sample of peak shard concentration is generally sufficient to ascertain the median shard size for a cryptotephra deposit. Lakes and peatlands in close proximity contain cryptotephras with significantly different median shard size in four out of five instances. The trend toward a greater amount of larger shards in lakes may have implications for the selection of distal sites to constrain the maximum glass shard size for modelling studies. Although the 95th percentile values for shard size generally indicate a loss of larger shards from deposits at sites farther from the volcano, due to the dynamic nature of the controls on tephra transport even during the course of one eruption there is no simple relationship between median shard size and transport distance.

Metasomatized subarc mantle is often regarded as one of the mantle reservoirs enriched in fluid-mobile elements (FMEs; e.g., B, Li, Cs, As, Sb, Ba, Rb, Pb), which, when subject to wet melting, will contribute to the characteristic FME-rich signature of arc volcanic rocks. Evidence of wet melts in the subarc mantle wedge is recorded in metasomatic amphibole-, phlogopite-, and pyroxene-bearing veins in ultramafic xenoliths recovered from arc volcanoes. Our new B and δ11B study of such veins in mantle xenoliths from Avachinsky and Shiveluch volcanoes, Kamchatka arc, indicates that slab-derived FMEs, including B and its characteristically high δ11B, are delivered directly to a melt that experiences limited interaction with the surrounding mantle before eruption. The exceptionally low B contents (from 0.2 to 3.1 μg g–1) and low δ11B (from –16.6‰ to +0.9‰) of mantle xenolith vein minerals are, instead, products of fluids and melts released from the isotopically light subducted and dehydrated altered oceanic crust and, to a lesser extent, from isotopically heavy serpentinite. Therefore, melting of amphibole- and phlogopite-bearing veins in a metasomatized mantle wedge cannot alone produce the characteristic FME geochemistry of arc volcanic rocks, which require a comparatively large, isotopically heavy and B-rich serpentinite-derived fluid component in their source. peerReviewed

Through decades of field studies and laboratory analyses, Volcán de Colima, Mexico has one of the best known proximal eruption stratigraphies of any volcano, yet the frequency and magnitudes of previous eruptions are still poorly resolved. Hazard assessments based on models of well-known, well-mapped recent eruptions may appear to have low uncertainty, but may be biased by the nature of those events. We present a comprehensive stratigraphy of explosive eruption deposits combining new data collected as part of this study together with published and unpublished data. For the first time we have been able to model five of the best exposed and cross-correlated pre-historical Holocene explosive events at Volcán de Colima. By modelling the volumes and magnitudes of Holocene eruptions at Volcán de Colima, we are able to improve estimations of the potential range of magnitudes of future explosive eruptions, which can be incorporated into hazard assessments for nearby communities. Based on recent studies we demonstrate that these volumes may be underestimated by at least an order of magnitude, and show that even with an exceptionally well-defined stratigraphic record our understanding of the full range of explosive eruptions may still be biased.

The Lesser Caucasus mountains sit on a transition within the Arabia-Eurasia collision zone between very thin lithosphere (< 100 km) to the west, under Eastern Anatolia, and a very thick lithospheric root (up to 200 km) in the east, under western Iran. A transect of volcanic highlands running from north-west to south-east in the Lesser Caucasus allows us to look at the effects of lithosphere thickness variations on the geochemistry of volcanic rocks in this continental collision zone. Volcanic rocks from across the region show a wide compositional range from basanites to rhyolites, and have arc-like geochemical characteristics, typified by ubiquitous negative Nb-Ta anomalies. Magmatic rocks from the south-east, where the lithosphere is thought to be thicker, are more enriched in incompatible trace elements, especially the light rare earth elements, Sr and P. They also have more radiogenic 87Sr/86Sr, and less radiogenic 143Nd/144Nd. Across the region, there is no correlation between SiO2 content and Sr-Nd isotope ratios, revealing a lack of crustal contamination. Instead, “spiky” mid-ocean-ridge basalt normalised trace element patterns are the result of derivation from a subduction-modified mantle source, which likely inherited its subduction component from subduction of the Tethys Ocean prior to the onset of continent-continent collision in the late Miocene. In addition to the more isotopically enriched mantle source, modelling of non-modal batch melting suggests lower degrees of melting and the involvement of garnet as a residual phase in the south-east. Melt thermobarometry calculations based on bulk-rock major elements confirm that melting in the south-east must occur at greater depths in the mantle. Temperatures of melting below 1200 °C, along with the subduction-modified source, suggest that melting occurred within the lithosphere. It is proposed that in the Northern Lesser Caucasus this melting occurs close to the base of the very thin lithosphere (at a depth of ∼45 km) as a result of small-scale delamination. A striking similarity between the conditions of melting in north-west Iran and the southern Lesser Caucasus (two regions between which the difference in lithosphere thickness is ∼ 100 km) suggests a common mechanism of melt generation in the mid-lithosphere (∼ 75 km). The southern Lesser Caucasus magmas result from mixing between partial melts of deep lithosphere (∼ 120 km in the south) and mid-lithosphere sources to give a composition intermediate between magmas from the northern Lesser Caucasus and north-west Iran. The mid-lithosphere magma source has a distinct composition compared to the base of the lithosphere, which is argued to be the result of the increased retention of metasomatic components in phases such as apatite and amphibole, which are stabilized by lower temperatures prior to magma generation.

The Colima Volcanic Complex (CVC) erupts in both highly explosive and effusive fashion. Detailed radiocarbon dating of tephra fallout deposits exposed in road-cuts on the flanks of Nevado de Colima reveal at least 25 major Plinian eruptions occurred during the last 30,000 years. Deposits from these eruptions are basaltic to andesitic in composition showing an arc affinity in their immobile trace element abundance patterns. Detailed studies of the mineralogy, major and trace element and isotope chemistry reveal two distinct magma types erupted at the CVC during the Holocene. Group I, which comprise the bulk of eruption deposits, are calc-alkaline basaltic-andesites to andesites, while Group II magmas show strong petrological and geochemical similarities to alkaline lamprophyric magmas that formed monogenetic cinder cones to the east and west of the northern CVC. The presence of alkaline and calc-alkaline magmas at the CVC has allowed us to investigate the nature between these magma types in an arc setting. Data presented here reveal that the Group II magmas formed from pulses of alkaline melts intercepting the magmatic storage region of the CVC stratovolcanoes, mixing with the calc-alkaline Group I magmas. These pulses appear to have recurrence rates on the timescales of a few thousand years.

A crucial problem at most volcanoes is reconstructing past eruptions from the geological record. The rapid erosion of many volcanic terrains results in geologically recent eruptions leaving a relatively sparse record of the event. Here we consider the tephra-stratigraphic record of the 1913 eruption of Volcán de Colima, a recent but greatly eroded tephra fallout deposit. A total of 38 stratigraphic sections of the 1913 deposit have been analysed for thickness, granulometry and geochemistry. The 1913 scoria are hornblende and two-pyroxene andesites with approximately 58 wt% SiO2, providing a geochemical and petrographic signature that is distinct from earlier (1818) and later tephra fallout deposits. Tephra2, a tephra dispersion computer code based on the advection-diffusion equation, is used to model thickness variation and particle size distribution of the pyroclasts for the 1913 deposit. Based on computer simulations, the observed tephra stratigraphy is best fit with a total eruption mass of ~5.5 × 1010 kg. Computer simulations including reports of tephra accumulation from the historical record produces an alternative deposit model with a finer median particle size (~1.77 ϕ), a higher eruption column (~25 km above mean sea level, amsl), and a greater total eruption mass (~1.4 × 1011 kg). This larger eruption magnitude is supported by modelling the granulometry of the 38 stratigraphic sections. The models suggest a median deposit particle size of at least 2ϕ, a deposit mass of 1–5 × 1011 kg (VEI 4), and that significant segregation by particle size as a function of height occurred in the 1913 eruption column. This analysis highlights potential bias in eruption magnitude estimates that use only thickness of proximal deposits, and the advantage of modelling the granulometry of the deposit in such circumstances.

International audience; Negative Cerium (Ce) anomalies are observed in chondrite-normalized Rare Earth Element patterns from various volcanic arc suites. These anomalies are well defined in volcanic rocks from the Mariana arc and have been interpreted as the result of addition of subducted sediments to the arc magma sources. This study combines 143Nd/144Nd and 138Ce/142Ce isotope measurements in Mariana volcanic rocks that have Ce anomalies ranging from 0.97 to 0.90. The dataset includes sediments sampled immediately before subduction at the Mariana Trench (Sites 801 and 802 of ODP Leg 129) and primitive basalts from the Southern Mariana Trough (back-arc basin). Binary mixing models between the local depleted mantle and an enriched end-member using both types of sediment (biosiliceous and volcaniclastic) found in the sedimentary column in front of the arc are calculated. Marianas arc lavas have Ce and Nd isotopic compositions that require

Tephrochronology (the dating of sedimentary sequences using volcanic ash layers) is an important tool for the dating and correlation of sedimentary sequences containing archives and proxies of past environmental change. In addition, tephra layers provide valuable information on the frequency and nature of ash fallout from volcanic activity. Successful tephrochronology is usually reliant on the correct geochemical identification of the tephra which has, until now, been based primarily on the analysis of major element oxide composition of glass shards using electron probe microanalysis (EPMA). However, it is often impossible to differentiate key tephra layers using EPMA alone. For example, the Hekla AD 1947 and 1510 tephras (which are found as visible layers in Iceland and also as ‘crypto-tephra’ microscopic layers in NW Europe) are currently indistinguishable using EPMA. Therefore, other stratigraphic or chronological information is needed for their reliable identification. Raman spectroscopy is commonly used in chemistry, since vibrational information is specific to the chemical bonds and symmetry of molecules, and can provide a fingerprint by which these can be identified. Here, we demonstrate how Raman spectroscopy can be used for the successful discrimination of mineral species in tephra through the analysis of individual glass shards. In this study, we obtained spectra from minerals within the glass shards – we analysed the microlites and intratelluric mineral phases that can definitely be attributed to the tephra shards and the glass itself. Phenocrysts were not analysed as they could be sourced locally from near-site erosion. Raman spectroscopy can therefore be considered a valuable tool for both proximal and distal tephrochronology because of its non-destructive nature and can be used to discriminate Hekla 1510 from Hekla 1947.

This work was supported as part of Patrick Sugden's PhD studentship funded through the Leeds-York SPHERES NERC doctoral training partnership (NE/L002754/1). Part of the fieldwork and research was funded by the University of Leeds, the Carnegie Institution of Washington, the ERASMUS exchange programme (for IS) and the Science Committee of the Armenian Ministry of Education and Science (project #18T-1E368). The majority of the B isotope analytical work was supported by IGG-CNR funds P1600514. We present the first boron abundance and δ11B data for young (1.5-0 Ma) volcanic rocks formed in an active continent-continent collision zone. The δ11B of post-collisional volcanic rocks (−5 to +2‰) from the Armenian sector of the Arabia-Eurasia collision zone are heavier than mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB), confirming trace element and isotope evidence for their derivation from a subduction-modified mantle source. Based on the low B/Nb (0.03-0.25 vs 0.2-90 in arc magmas), as well as low Ba/Th and Pb/Ce, this source records a subduction signature which is presently fluid-mobile element depleted relative to most arc settings. The heavier than MORB δ11B of post-collision volcanic rocks argues against derivation of their subduction signature from a stalled slab, which would be expected to produce a component with a lighter than MORB B, due to previous fluid depletion. Instead, the similarity of δ11B in Plio-Pleistocene post-collision to 41 Ma alkaline igneous rocks also from Armenia (and also presented in this study), suggests that the subduction signature is inherited from Mesozoic-Paleogene subduction of Neotethys oceanic slabs. The slab component is then stored in the mantle lithosphere in amphibole, which is consistent with the low [B] in both Armenian volcanic rocks and metasomatic amphibole in mantle xenoliths. Based on trace element and radiogenic isotope systematics, this slab component is thought to be dominated by sediment melts (or supercritical fluids). Previously published δ11B of metasediments suggests a sediment-derived metasomatic agent could produce the B isotope composition observed in Armenian volcanic rocks. The lack of evidence for aqueous fluids preserved over the 40 Myr since initial collision supports observations that this latter component is transitory, while the lifetime of sediment melts/supercritical fluids can be extended to >40 Myr. Publisher PDF

Whole-rock isotope ratio (Hf, Nd, Pb, Sr) and trace element data for basement rocks at ocean drilling Sites U1438, 1201 and 447 immediately west of the KPR (Kyushu-Palau Ridge) are compared to those of FAB (forearc basalts) previously interpreted to be the initial products of IBM subduction volcanism. West-of-KPR basement basalts (drill sites U1438, 1201, 447) and FAB occupy the same Hf-Nd and Pb-Pb isotopic space and share distinctive source characteristics with εHf mostly > 16.5 and up to εHf = 19.8, which is more radiogenic than most Indian mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB). Lead isotopic ratios are depleted, with 206Pb/204Pb = 17.8–18.8 accompanying relatively high 208Pb/204Pb, indicating an Indian-MORB source unlike that of West Philippine Basin plume basalts. Some Sr isotopes show affects of seawater alteration, but samples with 87Sr/86Sr < 0.7034 and εNd > 8.0 appear to preserve magmatic compositions and also indicate a common source for west-of-KPR basement and FAB. Trace element ratios resistant to seawater alteration (La/Yb, Lu/Hf, Zr/Nb, Sm/Nd) in west-of-KPR basement are generally more depleted than normal MORB and so also appear similar to FAB. At Site U1438, only andesite sills intruding sedimentary rocks overlying the basement have subduction-influenced geochemical characteristics (εNd ∼ 6.6, εHf ∼ 13.8, La/Yb > 2.5, Nd/Hf ∼ 9). The key characteristic that unites drill site basement rocks west of KPR and FAB is the nature of their source, which is more depleted in lithophile trace elements than average MORB but with Hf, Nd, and Pb isotope ratios that are common in MORB. The lithophile element-depleted nature of FAB has been linked to initiation of IBM subduction in the Eocene, but Sm-Nd model ages and errorchron relationships in Site U1438 basement indicate that the depleted character of the rocks is a regional characteristic that was produced well prior to the time of subduction initiation and persists today in the source of modern IBM arc volcanic rocks with Sm/Nd > 0.34 and εNd ∼ 9.0.

Developing a comprehensive understanding of the interactions between the atmosphere and the geosphere is an ever-more pertinent issue as global average temperatures continue to rise. The possibility of more frequent volcanic eruptions and more therefore more frequent volcanic ash clouds raises potential concerns for the general public and the aviation industry. This review describes the major processes involved in short- and long-term volcano–climate interactions with a focus on Iceland and northern Europe, illustrating a complex interconnected system, wherein volcanoes directly affect the climate and climate change may indirectly affect volcanic systems. In this paper we examine both the effect of volcanic inputs into the atmosphere on climate conditions, in addition to the reverse relationship – that is, how global temperature fluctuations may influence the occurrence of volcanic eruptions. Explosive volcanic eruptions can cause surface cooling on regional and global scales through stratospheric injection of aerosols and fine ash particles, as documented in many historic eruptions, such as the Pinatubo eruption in 1991. The atmospheric effects of large-magnitude explosive eruptions are more pronounced when the eruptions occur in the tropics due to increased aerosol dispersal and effects on the meridional temperature gradient. Additionally, on a multi-centennial scale, global temperature increase may affect the frequency of large-magnitude eruptions through deglaciation. Many conceptional models use the example of Iceland to suggest that post-glacial isostatic rebound will significantly increase decompression melting, and may already be increasing the amount of melt stored beneath Vatnajokull and several smaller Icelandic glaciers. Evidence for such a relationship existing in the past may be found in cryptotephra records from peat and lake sediments across northern Europe. At present, such records are incomplete, containing spatial gaps. As a significant increase in volcanic activity in Iceland would result in more frequent ash clouds over Europe, disrupting aviation and transport, developing an understanding of the relationship between the global climate and volcanism will greatly improve our ability to forecast and prepare for future events.

This chapter reviews recycling of boron (B) and its isotopes in subduction zones. It discusses the profound changes in B concentrations and B isotope ratios of various materials involved in convergent margin evolution, in particular highlighting the fate and evolution of progressively dehydrating subducting slabs and the behavior of B during burial and subsequent metamorphism. We review various models used to parameterize these complex and often poorly understood processes and critically evaluate the available data from the literature. We proceed by reviewing B isotope data from mafic arc volcanic rocks and explore systematic variations with subduction zone geometry as well as familiar geochemical tracers of subduction processes. Finally, the role of serpentinisation in the mantle wedge is discussed in the light of new geochemical and petrological insights on the importance of serpentinites and subduction erosion. We provide recommendations for further research on B isotopes in subduction zones and directions where we think this exciting stable isotope tracer may make the biggest impact.

The volcanic ash or ‘tephra’ cloud resulting from the relatively small (volume and VEI) eruption of the Icelandic volcano Eyjafjallajokull in 2010 caused major air travel disruption, at substantial global economic cost. On several occasions in the past few centuries, Icelandic eruptions have created ash and/or sulphur dioxide clouds which were detected over Europe (e.g. Hekla in 1947, Askja in 1875, and Laki in 1783). However, these historical observations do not represent a complete record of events serious enough to disrupt aviation in Europe. The only feasible evidence for this is within the geological tephra record. Ash layers are preserved in bogs and lakes where tephra deposited from the atmosphere is incorporated in the peat/mud. In this article we: 1, introduce the analysis of the Northern European sedimentary tephra record; 2, discuss our findings and modelling results; 3, highlight how these were misinterpreted by the popular media; and 4, use this experience to outline several existing problems with current tephra studies and suggest agendas for future research.

This research was undertaken while Elizabeth Watson held a NERC-funded Doctoral Training Grant (NE/K500847/1). GTS acknowledges support from the Dutch Foundation for the Conservation of Irish Bogs. IS and EJW thank CGS for generous support of the fieldwork in Sweden. Despite the widespread application of tephra studies for dating and correlation of stratigraphic sequences (‘tephrochronology’), questions remain over the reliability and replicability of tephra records from lake sediments and peats, particularly in sites >1000 km from source volcanoes. To address this, we examine the tephrostratigraphy of four pairs of lake and peatland sites in close proximity to one another (

In this study, we report the first discovery of microdiamond inclusions in kyanite–garnet schists from the Central Rhodope Mountains in Bulgaria. These inclusions occur in garnets from metapelites that are part of a meta-igneous and meta-sedimentary mélange hosted by Variscan (Hercynian) orthogneiss. Ultra-high-pressure (UHP) conditions are further supported by the presence of exsolved needles of quartz and rutile in the garnet and by geothermobarometry estimates that suggest peak metamorphic temperatures of 750–800°C and pressures in excess of 4GPa. The discovery of UHP conditions in the Central Rhodopes of Bulgaria compliments the well-documented evidence for such conditions in the southernmost (Greek) part of the Rhodope Massif. Dating of garnets from these UHP metapelites (Chepelare Shear Zone) using Sm–Nd geochronology indicates a Late Cretaceous age (70.5–92.7Ma) for the UHP metamorphic event. This is significantly younger than previously reported ages and suggests that the UHP conditions are associated with the Late Mesozoic subduction of the Vardar Ocean northward beneath the Moesian platform (Europe). The present-day structure of the RM is the result of a series of subduction–exhumation events that span the Cenozoic, alongside subsequent post-orogenic extension and metamorphic core complex formation.

Most tephra fallout models rely on the advection–diffusion equation to forecast sedimentation and hence volcanic hazards. Here, we test the application of the advection–diffusion equation to tephra sedimentation using data collected on the proximal (350 to ~1,200 m from the vent) to medial (greater than ~1,200 m from the vent) tephra blanket of a basaltic cinder cone, Cerro Negro volcano, located in Nicaragua. Our understanding of tephra depositional processes at this volcano is significantly improved by combination of sample pit data in the medial zone and high-resolution ground-penetrating radar (GPR) data collected in the near vent and proximal zones. If the advection–diffusion equation applies, then the thickness of individual tephra deposits should have Gaussian crosswind profiles and exponential decay with distance away from the vent. At Cerro Negro, steady trade winds coupled with brief eruptions of relatively low energy (VEI 2–3) create relatively simple deposits. GPR data were collected along three crosswind profiles at distances of 700–1,600 m from the vent; sample pits were used to estimate thickness of the 1992 tephra deposit up to 13 km from the vent. Horizons identified in proximal GPR profiles exhibit Gaussian distributions with a high degree of statistical confidence, with diffusion coefficients of ~500 m2 s−1 estimated for the deposits, confirming that the advection–diffusion equation is capable of modeling sedimentation in the proximal zone. The thinning trend downwind of the vent decreases exponentially from the cone base (350 m) to ~1,200 m from the vent. Beyond this distance, deposit overthickening occurs, identified in both GPR and sample pit datasets. The combined data reveal three depositional regimes: (1) a near-vent region on the cone itself, where fallout remobilizes in granular flows upon deposition; (2) a proximal zone in which particles fall from a height of less than ~2 km; and (3) a medial zone, in which particles fall from ~4 to 7 km and the deposit is thicker than expected based on thinning trends observed in the proximal zone of the deposit. This overthickening of the tephra blanket, defining the transition from proximal to medial depositional facies, is indicative of transition from sedimentation dominated by fallout from plume margins to that dominated by fallout from the buoyant eruption cloud—a feature of deposits previously identified in larger-volume eruptions. We interpret this change to represent a change in diffusion law, occurring at total particle fall times (the fall time threshold of numerical models) of ~400 s. Thus, the detailed GPR profiles and pit data collected at Cerro Negro help to validate current numerical models of tephra sedimentation.

The ash cloud resulting from the A.D. 2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajokull in Iceland caused severe disruption to air travel across Europe, but as a geological event it is not unprecedented. Analysis of peats and lake sediments from northern Europe has revealed the presence of microscopic layers of Icelandic volcanic ash (tephra). These sedimentary records, together with historical records of Holocene ash falls, demonstrate that Icelandic volcanoes have generated substantial ash clouds that reached northern Europe many times. Here we present the first comprehensive compilation of sedimentary and historical records of ash-fall events in northern Europe, spanning the past 7000 yr. Ash-fall events appear to have been more frequent in the past 1500 yr. It is unclear whether this reflects a true increase in eruption frequency or dispersal, or is an artifact of the records or the way in which they have been generated. In the past 1000 yr, volcanic ash clouds reached northern Europe with a mean return interval of 56 ± 9 yr (the range of return intervals is between 6 and 115 yr). Probabilistic modeling using the ash records for the last millennium indicates that for any 10 yr period there is a 16% probability of a tephra fallout event in northern Europe. These values must be considered as conservative estimates due to the nature of tephra capture and preservation in the sedimentary record.

Volcan de Colima in Western Mexican Volcanic Belt is the most active volcano in North America. We present a detailed tephrochronological study of its Holocene proximal tephra-fall, pyroclastic surge and pyroclastic flow deposits based on 98 new stratigraphic sections, 183 new dendrocalibrated radiocarbon [ 14 C] age determinations, 209 new geochemical analyses of pumice and ash, > 50 texture and mineral (point-counting) mode determinations and 230 grain-size analyses. These results provide a much clearer understanding of the explosive eruptive behavior of Volcan de Colima during the past 10,000 years. Our data reveals that only one of the many eruptions described in historic documents has been large enough to be preserved. We discuss the major and trace element geochemistry and petrology of the Holocene tephra and compare it with the currently erupting calc-alkaline andesites and alkaline minettes and basanites from the adjacent cinder cones. It appears that several of the oldest (∼ 12,000–6000 yrs BP) samples of the Holocene tephra may record the last episodes of calc-alkaline and alkaline magma mixing as first described in the pioneering work of Luhr and Carmichael (1981). Finally, the tephrochronological record from the northern, downwind side of the Colima Volcanic Complex is compared with the extensive, radiocarbon-constrained, record of Holocene debris–avalanche deposits on the south side of the complex, to build a more integrated picture of its past volcanic activity.

Magma is transported through Earth9s solid crust by two different processes, diking and diapirism, although other mechanisms, such as porous and channeled flow, can transport melt through partially molten crustal areas. Dikes are ubiquitous indicators of the transport of magma in the shallow crust by brittle fracture, and there is ample geological and geophysical evidence supporting diking as a magma-ascent mechanism through the crust. On the other hand, igneous diapirism, involving magma ascent by gravitational instability and requiring viscous or plastic flow of country rock (“hot Stokes” diapirs), is often invoked as a magma-transport mechanism restricted to the ductile upper mantle or lower crust. However, unequivocal geological field evidence for igneous diapirism has proven elusive and has been a matter of considerable debate. We report geological and geophysical evidence showing that Pliocene sills emplaced in the upper levels of brittle continental crust of the Colorado Plateau in the San Rafael subvolcanic field (Utah) became gravitationally unstable by mechanically altering the overlying sedimentary rocks. These sills grew into structures that we recognize as domes and plugs at the current level of exposure. Some of these plugs continued to transport magma to shallower levels of the continental crust and eventually acted as conduits feeding volcanic eruptions. Our geological and geophysical findings indicate that gravitational instability is a viable mechanism for the initiation of magma ascent in the upper continental crust for small volumes of basaltic magma under specific conditions.

Lava (n = 8) and bulk ash samples (n = 6) erupted between July 1999 and June 2005 were investigated to extend time-series compositional and textural studies of the products erupted from Volcan Colima since 1869. In particular, we seek to evaluate the possibility that the current activity will culminate in major explosive Plinian-style event similar to that in 1913. Lava samples continue to show relatively heterogeneous whole-rock compositions with some significant mafic spikes (1999, 2001) as have prevailed since 1976. Groundmass SiO2 contents continue trends to lower levels that have prevailed since 1961, in the direction of the still lower groundmass SiO2 contents found in 1913 scoriae. Importantly, ash samples from investigated Vulcanian-style explosive eruptions in 2005 are devoid of particles with micro-vesiculated groundmass textures; such textures characterized the 1913 scoriae, signifying expansion of in-situ magmatic gas as the propellant of the 1913 eruption. All magmas erupted since 1913 appear to have arrived in the upper volcanic conduit system in a degassed state. The small to moderate Vulcanian-style explosive eruptions, which have been common since 1999 (> 16,000 events), have blasted ash clouds as high as 11 km a.s.l. and sent pyroclastic flows out to distances of 5 km. These eruptions do not appear to be powered by expansion of in-situ magmatic gas. New small lava domes have been observed in the crater prior to many explosive eruptions. These plugs of degassed lava may temporarily seal the conduit and allow the build-up of magmatic gases streaming upward from below ahead of rising and degassing magma. In this interpretation, when gas pressure exceeds the strength of the plug seal in the upper conduit, an explosive Vulcanian-style eruption occurs. Alternatively these explosive eruptions may represent interactions of hot rock and groundwater (phreato-magmatic).

This research was undertaken while Elizabeth Watson was in possession of a NERC funded Doctoral Training Grant NE/K500847/1. Date of Acceptance: 25/07/2015 Microscopic tephra layers (‘cryptotephras’) represent important age-equivalent stratigraphic markers utilised in many palaeoenvironmental reconstructions. When used in conjunction with proximal records of volcanic activity they can also provide information about volcanic ash cloud fallout and frequency. However, the spatial distributions of tephra layers can be discontinuous even within the same region. Understanding the deposition and post-depositional redistribution of tephra is vital if we are to use cryptotephras as records of ash cloud occurrence and chronostratigraphic markers. The discrete nature of tephra layers also allows for detailed study into processes of deposition and reworking which affect many palaeoenvironmental proxy records. We undertook a multi-core study in order to examine the historical tephrostratigraphy of a raised peatland in Northern Ireland. Three tephra layers originating from Iceland (Hekla 1947, Hekla 1845 and Hekla 1510) are present in 14 of the 15 cores analysed. This suggests that in areas not influenced by snowfall or anthropogenic disturbance at the time of tephra delivery, the presence or absence of a tephra layer is generally consistent across a peatland of this type. However, tephra shard counts (per unit area) vary by an order of magnitude between cores. These intra-site differences may confound the interpretation of shard counts from single cores as records of regional ash cloud mass/density. Bootstrap resampling analysis suggests that total shard counts from multiple cores are required in order to make a reliable estimate of median shard counts for a site. The presence of three historical tephras in 14 cores enables a spatio-temporal analysis of the long-term apparent rate of carbon accumulation (LARCA) in the peatland. Substantial spatial and temporal variations in LARCA are identified over the last ∼450 years. This high variability needs to be taken into account when designing studies of peatland carbon accumulation. Publisher PDF

Serpentine muds from South Chamorro Seamount (SCS), drilled during ODP Leg 195 at Site 1200 contain metamafic clasts that experienced blueschist-facies metamorphism (including the critical mineral assemblage pumpellyite – Na-amphibole – epidote). These schists represent fragments from the actual slab–mantle interface at ~ 27 km depth. Their heterogeneous lithology with a metasomatic character indicates significant mobility of major elements in the Mariana forearc, a region of melange formation as it can also be observed in onland exposures such as the Catalina Schist. As the Mariana forearc blueschists show no late stage alteration they permit the direct study of material transfer during the subduction processes at an active convergent margin. This study presents the first data of detailed B isotope ( δ 11 B) and light element variations in blueschist-facies minerals from the Mariana arc system. The primary foci are B and Li concentrations and δ 11 B values analyzed by SIMS and ToF-SIMS techniques. Minerals such as (Na-rich) amphibole, phengite and chlorite are found to be strongly enriched in Li (up to 70 μg/g), Be (up to 8 μg/g) and B (up to 35 μg/g) and with δ 11 B values of − 6 ± 4‰. These new data are consistent with isotopically heavy B being released into the Mariana forearc mantle wedge (serpentinization of dry mantle peridotite after interaction with B-rich slab-released high pH fluids) and confirm models of significant B-loss and B isotope fractionation during forearc (shallow) slab dehydration. The elevated Li, Be and B concentrations in minerals that comprise the bulk of the rocks, namely, amphibole, phengite, and chlorite bear a strong potential to further transport Li and B as well as the isotopically light component of B to greater depths in the mantle, where ongoing metamorphism is responsible for further isotope and elemental fractionation and the formation of distinct mantle reservoirs, e.g. volcanic arc and oceanic intra-plate (OIB) magmas.

Samples of metamorphic rock were collected from drilled holes on ODP Leg 195 and in piston/gravity cores collected with the Jason 2 remotely operated vehicle from S. Chamorro Seamount, a serpentinite mud volcano on the Mariana forearc. The recovered muds are approximately 90% serpentinite, including grit- to boulder-sized clasts of serpentinized peridotites, but also contain a wide variety of small fragments of metabasic rocks. These metabasic fragments include high-pressure, low-temperature rocks derived from the subduction zone. Other serpentinite seamounts also have yielded metabasic rock fragments as small clasts in the serpentinite mudflows, but none have as wide a variety of rock types as S. Chamorro Seamount. The sources of the rock clasts, both serpentinized peridotites and metabasic schists, vary with the eruptive episodes of the mud volcanoes. Swath mapping of S. Chamorro Seamount shows that a sector collapse of its southeastern flank has resulted in debris flows from the summit region of the seamount that have traveled more than 70 km eastward toward the trench. These debris flows, however, have a very different morphology from mudflows observed at the summit. High-resolution seafloor mapping of the summit shows both thin, presumably highly fluid- (or gas-) charged serpentinite mudflows and a relatively viscous protrusion that has formed the main summit knoll. By comparison, the summit of Conical Seamount drilled on ODP Leg 125 lacks a distinct summit knoll and has numerous, relatively thin and widespread mudflows covering the flanks of the edifice. The style of eruption at a given seamount probably varies with time and with the amount of fluid or gas incorporated in a given pulse of mud. The greater diversity of metabasic rocks at S. Chamorro Seamount may be a consequence of recycling of forearc materials through tectonic erosion and subduction in the southern part of the forearc.

[1] Variable lithium contents and contrasting Li isotopic signatures are evident in the serpentininite muds and clasts extruded at Conical Seamount in the Mariana forearc. The muds have high Li contents compared to mantle values (3–7 ppm) and a mean δ7Li value of ∼+6‰. The clasts are generally lower in Li, and δ7Li varies from −6‰ to +10‰, with higher δ7Li correlating broadly to higher lithium contents. The diverse δ7Li in the serpentinite clasts suggests Li exchanges between mantle rocks and evolving slab-derived fluids from different depths, producing a subarc mantle that is zoned in terms of Li abundances and δ7Li. Mariana forearc Li isotopic signatures reach values as high as those reported in Mariana arc lavas, but neither Mariana lavas nor lavas from other “mature” arcs show the variability observed in the serpentinites. Although elevated serpentinite Li contents indicate forearc releases of Li, large differences in δ7Li are not evident in the slab outputs at forearc versus arc depths in the Marianas, despite evidence for changes in other alkaline species (e.g., Ba, Sr, K). It is thus possible that the Li sampled by Mariana arc volcanoes is in large part Li which was released in the forearc and transported in the mantle via convection to arc depths, as has been proposed to explain B isotopic variations [Straub and Layne, 2002]. The uniform δ7Li signatures observed in “mature” volcanic arcs [Tomascak et al., 2002] are consistent with higher overall fluxes of slab fluids, which generate larger melting anomalies, including both modified and nonmodified mantle wedge domains. High or low δ7Li in lavas from anomalous arcs (e.g., Panama [Tomascak et al., 2000]) may indicate that the volumes of mantle sampled in these magmatic events are smaller and thus more likely to reflect the signatures of hydrated “plums” [e.g., Allegre and Turcotte, 1986; Phipps Morgan and Morgan, 1999] with extremely high or low δ7Li.

Probabilistic modeling of lava flow hazard is a two-stage process. The first step is an estimation of the possible locations of future eruptive vents followed by an estimation of probable areas of inundation by lava flows issuing from these vents. We present a methodology using this two-stage approach to estimate lava flow hazard at a nuclear power plant site near Aragats, a Quaternary volcano in Armenia.