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The Ijen volcano has Pleistocene age (294.00 ± 0.03 Ma), and this stratovolcano was very acidic crater water with a pH of 0-1. The acidic crater water seeps into the Banyupait river flow. Asembagus is a research area located on the northern slope of the Ijen volcano, and the Banyupait River drains this. The acidic river water flows from the Ijen Crater Lake, so the pH of the water river was very acidic. This study used several different analytic methodologies with some previous researchers, namely using the method of geological mapping, pH measurement, spectrophotometry, IRMS (Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometer), and the technique of Induced Coupled Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). Besides, the petrographic analysis is used to determine the composition of rock minerals due to rocks interacting with acidic water. Banyupait River water in the Asembagus area has a pH of river water around 3-7.3, SO4 (220-683 ppm), and the type of water is meteoric water. Also, concentrations of Ca, K, Mg in the west Banyupait river irrigation water flow showed higher levels when compared to the eastern Banyupait River water flow. Likewise, REE elements from the Asembagus region showed lower concentrations compared to Ijen Crater water. This change in the level of chemical elements is caused by the acidity of the Banyupait River being diluted or mixed with water from other water. However, the spring was not affected by acidic water. The process of acidic water interaction with rocks can also be observed from rocks traversed by the Banyupait River flow. Chalcedony and hematite replace the primary minerals of basaltic rocks. This research is expected to improve the quality of water needed by the Asembagus community so that people can live healthily.

The 26 October-23 November 2010, eruption is Merapi's largest event (VEI 4) over the past 140 years. We tracked and identified the 2010 Merapi's PDC deposits in the most impacted catchment (South) using high-resolution optical (from GeoEye and SPOT-5 satellites as well as low altitude photograph) imagery. We show that high-resolution imagery enables mapping with unprecedented detail the effects of the 2010 eruption in the summit area and across the most devastated catchment on Merapi. We investigated the relationships between the morphology of the river channel, and the apparent behavior of the PDCs and lahars, as deduced from over-banking processes. The 2010 pyroclastic deposits cover an area of ∼27 km2 in the Gendol-Opak catchment, i.e. 35% of the total deposit area. We analyze how unconfined PDCs with over-bank and veneer facies, as well as two types of surges have mantled widespread areas on both sides of the Gendol valley which contain the confined PDC deposits. Geometric and geomorphic characteristics that allow over bank and veneer deposits beyond the main valley are: limited cross-sectional areas under 1500 m2 and the decreasing longitudinal rate of channel confinement. Subsequent lahars six months after the eruption have devastated several villages along the Gendol River 20km from the summit on the ring plain. Small areas down-valley was affected by over-bank lahars once pyroclastic deposits were remobilized 3.8km farther than the PDC front. The over-bank and avulsed lahars can be attributed to the limited capacity (200-250 m2) of river channels and meandering river (sinuosity index of 1.25) across the lowest-angle (

Pyroclastic density current deposits remobilized by water during periods of heavy rainfall trigger lahars (volcanic mudflows) that affect inhabited areas at considerable distance from volcanoes, even years after an eruption. Here we present an innovative approach to detect and estimate the thickness and volume of pyroclastic density current (PDC) deposits as well as erosional versus depositional environments. We use SAR interferometry to compare an airborne digital surface model (DSM) acquired in 2004 to a post eruption 2010 DSM created using COSMO-SkyMed satellite data to estimate the volume of 2010 Merapi eruption PDC deposits along the Gendol river (Kali Gendol, KG). Results show PDC thicknesses of up to 75 m in canyons and a volume of about 40 × 106 m3, mainly along KG, and at distances of up to 16 km from the volcano summit. This volume estimate corresponds mainly to the 2010 pyroclastic deposits along the KG — material that is potentially available to produce lahars. Our volume estimate is approximately twice that estimated by field studies, a difference we consider acceptable given the uncertainties involved in both satellite- and field-based methods. Our technique can be used to rapidly evaluate volumes of PDC deposits at active volcanoes, in remote settings and where continuous activity may prevent field observations.

Following the eruption of January 1992, episodes of lava dome growth accompanied by generation of dome-collapse nuees ardentes occurred in 1994–1998. In addition, nuees ardentes were generated by fountain-collapse in January 1997, and the 1998 events also suggest an explosive component. Significant tilt and seismic precursors on varying time scales preceded these events. Deformation about the summit has been detected by electronic tiltmeters since November 1992, with inflation corresponding generally to lava dome growth, and deflation (or decreased inflation) corresponding to loss of dome mass. Strong short-term (days to weeks) accelerations in tilt rate and seismicity occurred prior to the major nuees ardentes episodes, apart from those of 22 November 1994 which were preceded by steadily increasing tilt for over 200 days but lacked short-term precursors. Because of the combination of populated hazardous areas and the lack of an issued warning, about 100 casualties occurred in 1994. In contrast, the strong precursors in 1997 and 1998 provided advance warning to observatory scientists, enabled the stepped raising of alert levels, and aided hazard management. As a result of these factors, but also the fortunate fact that the large nuees ardentes did not quite descend into populated areas, no casualties occurred. The nuee ardente episode of 1994 is interpreted as purely due to gravitational collapse, whereas those of 1997 and 1998 were influenced by gas-pressurization of the lava dome.

More than 50 volcanic debris flows or lahars were generated around Mt Merapi during the first rainy season following the nuees ardentes of 22 November 1994. The rainfalls that triggered the lahars were analyzed, using such instruments as weather radar and telemetered rain gauges. Lahar dynamics were also monitored, using new non-contact detection instrumentation installed on the slopes of the volcano. These devices include real-time seismic amplitude measurement (RSAM), seismic spectral amplitude measurement (SSAM) and acoustic flow monitoring (AFM) systems. Calibration of the various systems was accomplished by field measurements of flow velocities and discharge, contemporaneously with instrumental monitoring. The 1994–1995 lahars were relatively short events, their duration in the Boyong river commonly ranging between 30 min and 1 h 30 min. The great majority (90%) of the lahars was recognized at Kaliurang village between 13:00 and 17:30 h, due to the predominance of afternoon rainfalls. The observed mean velocity of lahar fronts ranged between 1.1 and 3.4 m/s, whereas the peak velocity of the flows varied from 11 to 15 m/s, under the Gardu Pandang viewpoint location at Kaliurang, to 8–10 m/s at a section 500 m downstream from this site. River slopes vary from 28 to 22 m/km at the two sites. Peak discharges recorded in various events ranged from 33 to 360 m3/s, with the maximum value of peak discharge 360 m3/s, on 20 May 1995. To improve the lahar warning system along Boyong river, some instrumental thresholds were proposed: large and potentially hazardous lahars may be detected by RSAM units exceeding 400, SSAM units exceeding 80 on the highest frequency band, or AFM values greater than 1500 mV on the low-gain, broad-band setting.