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The use of check-dams in mountain environments to regulate fluxes of water and sediments is widely applied across Mediterranean mountains. Besides the use of “grey infrastructures” such as check-dams, other restoration and hydrological control measures rely more on the use of “green infrastructures” or “nature-based solutions” (e.g. reforestation, buffer lines) or a combination of both types of measures. It is widely accepted that both are complementary, and that prioritization should be based on economic, ecological and cultural criteria. This paper brings together all the knowledge generated during more than one decade concerning the impact of land use changes, reforestation, and hydrological control works on several ecosystem services in a representative Mediterranean catchment. The work evaluates different management scenarios aiming to optimize provision of ecosystem services in the area. The study area is a medium-sized catchment (∼300 km2) in Southeast Spain, representative of Mediterranean mountains that experienced agricultural land abandonment, greening up, and restoration works in the second half of the twentieth century. The methods combined: (i) previous research results for the area that were organized in an ecosystem services framework, providing data for three representative scenarios of catchment management; (ii) the use of value content analysis of the existing management plans for the area to understand the view of the managers; and (iii) a multicriteria analysis of the management scenarios to determine the most sustainable scenario to optimize different ecosystem services. The results of the evaluation were later validated with the stakeholders (technicians and managers involved in the management plans) through interviews. Our results show that solutions that respect landscape and ecological dynamics are more sustainable and cheaper in the medium and long term than scenarios based on “grey infrastructures”, although the latter could have more desirable short-term impacts. The value analysis reflects how there are some concepts, such as ecosystem services, that could easily be further incorporated into several management plans. When choosing a management scenario, this needs to be adapted to the local environmental conditions and to the specific objectives of the restoration works. Tailor-made management scenarios taking into account two factors (local conditions and specific management objectives) can optimize resources and achieve medium to long-term sustainability.

In 2010, Jack Dangermond, president of Environmental Systems Research Institute (Esri) spoke to the TED.com conference about ‘GeoDesign’, a concept based on a book written in the 1960s by landscape architect Ian McHarg. In this book, ‘Design with Nature’, McHarg pioneered the concept of ecological planning, showing how scientific information, maps, and more could be combined and integrated with the design process to make harmonious and responsible plans. The book inspired Jack Dangermond and it was this idea that led to the creation of the organisation Esri—the world’s most successful spatial analysis company that builds, and enables software users to build, geographic information systems (GIS). Yet, the president of Esri did not believe this was enough. He suggested that we need to be able to harness everything we can measure—from ecology and biology to geology, hydrology, meteorology and other scientific data—and use them to design a better world, a world that considers the character of the environment and integrates it into what we design. While the name is new, the concept is ancient. The role of cartography and planning in human development has been immense (Harley and Woodward, 1987), the overall aim of which is to infuse design with science-based and value-based information to enable planners and stakeholders to facilitate holistic planning decisions. Geodesign is ‘design in geographic space’ that provides the framework for exploring issues from an interdisciplinary point of view by combining science- and value-based designs. It is a set of technological ideas that combine geography with design. It does this by providing tools, such as simulation models, multi-criteria analysis, visualisation, spatial optimisation and real-time feedback. Using a case study, we describe the use of geodesign tools to facilitate collaborative marine planning based around a prospective tidal energy extraction site on the west coast of Scotland.

This paper purposes an enhanced land use optimization model for land-use planning with a new spatial component. This component uses a simple representation of the proximity of related land uses to each other as a function of distances between parcel centroids. A special purpose genetic algorithm is developed for solving the resultant optimization problems for both the direct (additive) objectives and the indirect (spatial) objective. The context relates to interactive decision support for land use planning in which the data are stored in a vector-based GIS, and the requirement was to integrate the multiobjective optimization with the GIS structure. The present work thus extends earlier work by the authors which used a grid (raster) structure. The model is based on a reference point approach in which both additive and spatial goals can be specified. Numerical testing of the algorithm, and experimentation with possible user inputs, are described in the context of a real case study from a region of The Netherlands. It is shown that the simplified spatial proximity measure and the associated algorithm produce consistent results in which the spatial distribution of activities are essentially the same as with more complex modeling of spatial goals, achievable in the particular case study with little loss in terms of the additive objectives. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd.

This article focuses on the use of map-based multicriteria analysis to develop a negotiation support tool for land use allocation. Spatial multicriteria analysis is used to make explicit trade-offs between objectives and to provide guidance and feedback on the land use changes negotiated by the participants. Digital maps are the means of communication among workshop participants, and an interactive mapping device (the 'Touch table') is used as the interface. Participants are informed about the relevant trade-offs on the map and use this information to change the land use maps. The approach is tested during a negotiation session as part of the land use planning process of the Bodegraven polder, a peat meadow area in the Netherlands. © 2011 Copyright Taylor and Francis Group, LLC.

1. Nature conservation and restoration traditionally focus on protecting individual sites. In parts of the world where the natural landscape has been severely altered for agricultural or urban use, individual patches are too small and isolated to ensure effective nature protection. Spatial processes, such as metapopulation dynamics, are disrupted and natural linkages in the landscape, such as water flows, are severed by modifications in the landscape and hydrology. 2. We propose the identification of Operational Landscape Units (OLUs), which are defined as combinations of landscape patches with their hydrogeological and biotic connections, as a tool to facilitate wetland restoration in catchments with a high degree of fragmentation and strongly altered hydrology. The combined consideration of biotic (i.e. dispersal, transports of organisms) and hydrological connections (flooding events, groundwater flowpaths) is a new approach. 3. We developed criteria for the delineation of OLUs in regional wetland restoration initiatives. The key elements for delineation are definition of the restoration objectives, identification of spatial landscape mechanisms and information on historic and present land uses and hydrologic management. 4. As a case study, we delineated an OLU by applying these criteria in a restoration initiative for a large agricultural area that used to be a floodplain until the early 1950s in N.E. Twente, The Netherlands. The OLU encompassed not only the floodplain area to be restored but also a relatively remote nature reserve upstream as well as the stream connecting both areas. By restoring the historic water regime, flooding events would become a regular feature in the two areas and organisms including seeds would flow from the nature reserve to the restored floodplain. 5. Synthesis and applications. Discussions of the proposed Operational Landscape Units with stakeholders (water authorities, nature conservation agencies, farmers) resulted in shared insights which will lead to modifications of the original management plan for the area. We believe the OLU approach will make natural resource managers aware of the importance of spatial processes and connectivity in landscapes and, if properly applied, will lead to more natural and more successful restoration projects. © 2008 The Authors.

Wetlands perform functions that support the generation of ecologically, socially and economically important values. European legislation has increasingly recognised the importance of preserving wetland ecosystems. The Water Framework Directive (WFD) embodies many of the existing directives that have implications for wetlands. The EU funded EVALUWET project (European valuation and assessment tool supporting wetland ecosystem legislation) aims to develop and implement an operational wetland evaluation decision support system to support European policy objectives. A multidisciplinary approach is adopted combining expertise from natural and social scientists. The region of Noord-Hollands Midden is selected as the Dutch case study within EVALUWET. This region north of Amsterdam is a typical Dutch landscape with drained peat meadows in polders below sea level. Important stakeholders are: agricultural organisations, recreation, nature conservation organisations, and provincial/regional authorities. Water levels are controlled in the area. Changes in water regimes are proposed (National Policies, WFD) which will have an impact on the performance of functions such as agriculture, nature and residential and recreation opportunities. In this case study, three alternatives will be compared: (1) modern peat pasture (current), (2) historical peat pasture and (3) dynamic mire. Impacts of these alternatives on a number of criteria relevant to EU policy are assessed. Spatial evaluation techniques in combination with multicriteria methods are used to support evaluation. This provides a better insight into the consequences of alternative water regimes on the performance of the wetland functions and is used to support stakeholders participating in the decision process. The system is based on the following software components: impact assessment is performed by a rule-based knowledge base implemented in NetWeaver. Spatial evaluation and map presentation are handled in ArcView and ArcMap. Multicriteria analysis is performed using the software package DEFINITE. © 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Spacial decision support systems (SDSS) are popular tools in decision-making processes. Despite their popularity there are many systema that are never or hardly used. The present study searches for explanations or reasons for success or failure of such tools by comparing five representative examples of SDSS for coastal zone and water management. The findings of the comparison show, amongst others, that SDSS only provide limited or no support for analysing and evaluating the output generated by SDSS. Also, no or poor support for spatial evaluation is offered which might be one of the reasons why some SDSS are not used. © 2003 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Fisheries resources are vulnerable to over-exploitation, in large part because of their open-access nature. For long-term ecological and socio-economic sustainability, fisheries therefore need to be regulated by limiting Total Allowable Catches (TAC) and/or Total Allowable Effort (TAE). It can be argued that to maximize the efficiency of the fisheries sector tradable fishing rights is the way to go. This is the solution implemented successfully in countries such as Iceland and New Zealand (Scott, 2000; Arnason, 2005). In many developing countries, however, protection of traditional fishing communities and their subsistence fisheries is added. Objectives of fishing rights allocation can then include poverty reduction and preservation of traditional culture. Fishing quota systems have been seen as a solution to the problem of over- capitalization, of ever-increasing effort, of the derby effect (where fishers rush to harvest as much as possible of the season’s quota where it is not individually allocated), and a way, thus, to reduce over-fishing. Along with deciding on the duration of the right, its divisibility and transferability, implementation of a quota approach for any fishery faces the questions of who should get the initial and possible subsequent quotas, how large the quotas should be and what they should cost (Scott, 2000). In most countries where quotas have been introduced the primary concern has been with reducing effort, over-capitalization and overfishing. South Africa has had company quotas since 1979 for hake (Merluccius spp.) and the early 1980s for west coast rock lobster (Jasus lalandii, H. MilneEdwards). From the late 1990s until now the South African government has been extending the quota system to most fisheries. A long-term sustainable yield from fish stocks is a necessary pre-condition for the survival of the artisanal fishing communities of the Western Cape. The fishing rights allocation system described in this study aims to secure the livelihoods of these communities by securing the important ecosystem services that sustainable fish stocks provide. Success of the allocation process is to a large extent dependent on its creating suitable conditions for commercial and artisanal fishermen alike to derive sustainable benefits from the ecosystem service ‘production of fish’. A regulatory approach is used to create these conditions.

The rapid development of the offshore renewable energy sector has led to an increased requirement for Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) and, increasingly, this is carried out in the context of the 'ecosystem approach' (EA) to management. We demonstrate a novel method to facilitate implementation of the EA. Using a real-time interactive mapping device (touch-table) and stakeholder workshops we gathered data and facilitated negotiation of spatial trade-offs at a potential site for tidal renewable energy off the Mull of Kintyre (Scotland). Conflicts between the interests of tidal energy developers and commercial and recreational users of the area were identified, and use preferences and concerns of stakeholders were highlighted. Social, cultural and spatial issues associated with conversion of common pool to private resource were also revealed. The method identified important gaps in existing spatial data and helped to fill these through interactive user inputs. The workshops developed a degree of consensus between conflicting users on the best areas for potential development suggesting that this approach should be adopted during MSP. © 2012 Alexander et al.

Regional and urban planning problems are often hard to solve for various reasons. Large amounts of data are needed, due to the number of spatial units involved or the range of phenomena taken into account. Uncertainties of various kinds have an important influence on technological developments and on the decisions of policy makers at the macrolevel. Another reason why these planning problems are so difficult is that political conflicts between spatial units or between policy objectives are intense. Geographical information systems have been designed to contribute to the solution of such planning problems. For this purpose, GIS systems have been supplied with various facilities for analysis, modelling and forecasting. Here, we consider the integration of GIS with another facility: multicriteria analysis (MCA), which aims at analysing the intensity and nature of conflicts between policy criteria, generating compromise alternatives and rankings of alternatives according to their degree of attractiveness. Thus, linking GIS with MCA enables policy conflicts to be analysed in a spatial context.