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Rock properties are a crucial control of landform development. The purpose of this chapter is to examine the progress that was made in studying rock properties in general and then to discuss developments in the study of landforms in three main rock types: granite, limestone and sandstone. From the mid-1960s onwards, geomorphology witnessed an increasing concern with the quantification of rock properties and their relationship to landforms and landscape evolution. Japanese geomorphologists led in this endeavour. Studies crossed a range of scales from those of a large size that were susceptible to field measurements to those of small size that involved laboratory studies. Among the basic characteristics of rocks that have been studied are fracturing and jointing, rock mass strength, hardness as determined by the Schmidt Hammer, resistance as determined by laboratory simulations, slaking susceptibility, porosity, water absorption capacity, water content and permeability, and petrological thin-section analyses. The investigation of forms and processes in granite, limestone and sandstone areas has shown the value of combined geological and geographical approaches, and the increasing internationalization of studies.

The Mississippian-age Sooner Trend Anadarko Canadian Kingfisher (STACK) area of Oklahoma is one of the more important new resource plays in North America. It consists of multilevel drilling targets, including mudrock, siltstone, and carbonate reservoirs, some of which are self-sourced and all of which require hydraulic fracturing to produce commercial quantities of oil. The efficacy of the fracturing relies on whether the created fracture network drains from producible rock types. We have integrated data at core and seismic resolution scales to map the rock types’ spatially exhaustive lateral and vertical variation for this new play. We measured porosity, permeability, saturated compressional wave (P-wave) and shear wave (S-wave) velocity, and density in the laboratory at 2 ft intervals on the cores. We defined rock types corresponding to engineering flow units based on porosity and permeability measurements. We mapped these rock types against alternative elastic property crossplots, including P-impedance, S-impedance, Poisson’s ratio, lambda-rho, and mu-rho. P- and S- impedance are the only two independent elastic properties measured on the core samples, and other elastic properties are calculated from these. Hence, the rock types showed equal sensitivity to all of the elastic property pairs. We observe a 30% difference between the core and seismic elastic values, attributed to dispersion and effective media effects. We managed this discrepancy between the core and surface seismic elastic values by simple linear scaling. We found that the P-impedance and Poisson’s ratio core measurements were easier to scale linearly to the corresponding seismic frequency measurements. Once scaled, we used Bayesian classification to map the P-impedance and Poisson’s ratio rock type template defined by the core measurements to the same elastic parameters measured by prestack seismic inversion. As we move away from the six cored wells deeper into the basin and more distal from the shelf, we encounter P-impedance/Poisson’s ratio pairs not seen in the core, resulting in areas where the rock type is “unknown.” The seismically predicted rock types show an excellent correlation at the well locations and provided stratigraphically reasonable images away from the wells, suggesting that as more wells are cored, these unknown rock types can be classified.

In this study, efficient deep transfer learning models are proposed to classify six types of volcanic rocks, and this paper has a novelty in classifying volcanic rock types for the first time using thin section images. Convolutional neural network-based DenseNet121 and ResNet50 networks, which are transfer learning methods, are used to extract the features from thin section images of rocks, and the classification process is carried out with a single-layer fully connected neural network. The proposed models are trained and tested on 1200 thin section images using four different optimizers (Adadelta, ADAM, RMSprop, SGD). AUC, accuracy, precision, recall and f1-score are used as performance metrics. Proposed models are run 10 times for each optimizer. DenseNet121 classifies volcanic rock types using RMSprop with an average accuracy of 99.50% and a maximum of 100.00%, and ResNet50 classifies using ADAM with an average accuracy of 98.80% and a maximum of 99.72%. Thus, the applied deep transfer learning is promising in geosciences and can be used to identify rock types quickly and accurately.

The paper presents petrochemical, geochemical, and mineralogical data on rocks of the phoscorite–carbonatite complex in the Kovdor alkaline–ultramafic massif, Kola Peninsula, Russia. In contrast to what is usually thought, trace elements were determined to be concentrated not in the carbonatites themselves but in the related phoscorites. The paper presents data on the evolution of the compositions and zoning of minerals in successive generations of both rock types as a result of the fractional crystallization of their parental magmas, and data on general trends in the concentrations of trace elements. The Fe-rich phosphate–carbonate melt seems to have separated from the primitive alkaline–ultramafic silicate melt during its advanced differentiation. The Fe-rich phosphate–carbonate magma was parental for the phoscorite–carbonatite complex. The possibility of its splitting into immiscible Fe-rich phosphate and carbonatite melts is discussed.

Analysis of 976 lithic artifacts from twelve museum and private collections in the Lower Rio Grande Valley revealed a preference for seven rock types. Sixty nine percent of all tools were made from...

The present study evaluates the performance of PNN models for porosity prediction using seismic attributes. Four seismic datasets and more than 20 wells from different sedimentary basins located in Libya, Iraq, Egypt and USA are employed to characterize the effective attributes for porosity prediction. Verification and testing error analysis is adopted for evaluating the prediction performance. Results indicated that the porosity prediction models are primarily dependent to the propagation related attributes with frequency attributes as the most effective parameters in porosity prediction. In addition, the data quality and processing history strongly control the prediction model performance with relatively limited effects to dataset dimensionality (2D versus 3D) and the number of wells utilized in model construction. Such results are important to better understand and evaluate the performance of PNN porosity prediction models using various seismic attributes. Keywords: Porosity prediction, Seismic attributes, PNN, Al Ghani field, Sooner field, Kifl field, Baltim field

Deposits of Wadi gravel are available in many parts of the Gulf region, but not widely utilized as aggregate for concrete, mainly due to the possibility of internal sulfate attack, plus the perceived risk of alkali aggregate reactivity (AAR). This paper describes the investigations for AAR of the Wadi gravel in this case, as part of the wider study described in Part 1 of this paper. Wadi gravel from the Mekaines site in Qatar was subjected to petrographic analysis, plus the gel-pat and accelerated mortar-bar test methods. The AAR potential was found to be low to normal. The accelerated mortar-bar test exhibited ‘innocuous’ behaviour after 14 days of immersion in alkali solution. When separately testing the constituent rock types of the Wadi gravel, limestone and quartz returned innocuous results, while rhyolite, granite and quartzite returned potentially alkali silica reactive (ASR) results and some reaction was confirmed using post-expansion petrographic examination. Wadi gravel was classified as potentially reactive in the RILEM AAR-4.1 accelerated concrete prism test, but of ‘low reactivity’ in the BS 812-123 test over the longer period of 12 months. Overcoming the potential problems of gypsum content and AAR successfully provides a valuable local resource of Wadi gravel aggregate for concrete.

In hot desert regions, attention is turning to local sources of aggregate that were previously regarded as ‘too difficult9 to exploit. This paper describes an investigation of such a deposit in Qatar. The material, known as Wadi gravel, is a gravelly sand of Tertiary age cemented by gypsum. A field survey found the gravel content to be in the range of 10 to 20%. As-dug samples had excessively high sulfate content, which could not be removed with conventional aggregate operations. However, intensive treatment in a local sand-processing plant using multi-stage crushing, screening and washing reduced the sulfate to acceptable levels. Petrographic analysis was carried out to identify rock types potentially susceptible to Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR). Trial concrete mixes using the processed Wadi gravel were found to produce satisfactory C40 and C60 concrete. Full-scale building trials were constructed to demonstrate the practicality of using the gravel and assess in-service performance. The smooth surface and rounded particles of Wadi gravel improved the concrete workability and strength, and durability-related properties were similar to concrete made with imported gabbro. Strata similar to Wadi gravel occur widely in hot desert regions and could be useful sources of coarse and fine aggregate for concrete.

In this study, the efficacy of the linear regression modeling technique in the company of recharge rate-induced geophysical parameters was implemented through geographical information system to establish the essentiality of geology factor in recharge rate estimate and prediction. The study empirically assessed the in situ and the spatiotemporal variability in the recharge rate in response to the multi-faceted geologic settings in the Perak province, Malaysia. The used data sets were 2D resistivity data, climate data and the ancillary data (surface geologic rock types; [quaternary (QUA); Devonian (DEV); Silurian (SIL); igneous(ING)]. The acquired 2D data were interpreted for delineating vadose zone units having varying geoelectrical parameters consisting of resistivity (ρ) and its thickness (D) (depth to aquifer top). The combined GIS and linear regression techniques were applied to relate the vadose zone geoelectrical parameters with the spatially modeled rainfall–recharge estimate. The obtained results were processed in R statistical software environment to develop GIS linear regression (GLR)-based recharge models for the area underlain geologic rock types. The developed GIS linear regression (GLR)-based recharge models were validated using the models’ parameter significance evaluation and models’ forecasting accuracy assessment approaches. The results of the applied GLR-based recharge models at each 2D location were processed to produce groundwater recharge maps for the rock types. Applying the concept of GIS-based geoelectrical parameters recharge estimate and rainfall–recharge rate–subsurface media estimate approaches, the output of the GLR-based recharge models was quantitatively evaluated to give expected recharge estimates of 242 mm/yr, 248.mm/yr, 268 mm/yr and 224 mm/y and total recharge water values of 377.9 × 106 m3/year, 319 × 106 m3/year, 161.6 × 106 m3/year, 227.3 × 106 m3/year, for the area underlain rock types, namely QUA, DEV, SIL and ING, respectively. Based on these results, the impact of geologic rocks’ factor on the area recharge rate estimates is established. Thus, the consideration of the geology factor is very important in accurate estimation and prediction of the groundwater recharge rate. The developed GLR-based recharge models and the produced groundwater recharge maps are viable decision tools for efficient management of groundwater resources in the study area and any area of similar geologic settings.

The bedrock of Skåne, the southernmost province of Sweden, has been targeted for geothermal feasibility studies since the late 1970s. An exploration project concerning the geothermal potential in the Romeleåsen Fault Zone was launched outside the town of Lund in 2001. Besides geophysical imaging of the thrust fault zone, the investigations included drilling and investigations of a 3701.8-m-deep exploration well, DGE-1, with the aim to find > 100 °C warm and hydraulically conductive fractured crystalline bedrock associated to the fault zone. The well penetrates a heavily thrusted and predominantly strongly inclined sedimentary succession in hanging rock blocks along the main fault before entering the fractured crystalline basement at 1946 m, primarily composed of gneiss, granite, and metabasite. This paper represents the first comprehensive description and evaluation of the geological, physical, and hydrological properties of the bedrock at these depths in the Romeleåsen Fault Zone coupled to a geothermal assessment. In addition, the applicability of the four drilling methods used in the crystalline basement section is discussed. The outcome of the DGE-1 well shows significant fracturing in the crystalline bedrock at target depth. The investigations show an average thermal gradient of 22 °C/km, an average heat flow of 58 mW/m2, and an average heat production of 5.8 µW/m3. The values are relatively high in comparison to thermal conditions noted in other deep wells in the Fennoscandian Shield. However, a bottomhole temperature of around 85 °C and insufficient fluid production rate made a commercial geothermal system unviable. Despite this, the experiences from drilling and investigations of the crystalline bedrock at several kilometers depth constitute important proxies for assessing the geothermal potential in similar geological settings and for engineered geothermal systems in the crystalline bedrock of south Sweden.

Separating volcanic rocks into groups based on field observations or geochemical data is important for understanding their origins. None of the conventional plotting methods for classification of different rock types are designed to do this. Isotope data may partly improve such classifications, but higher costs are involved. To address this issue, we applied principal component analysis (PCA) and a support vector machine (SVM) to geochemical data in order to separate volcanic rock samples into different groups. The first step used total alkalis–silica classification and Harker diagrams with an SVM to separate samples based on differences in rock type. We then used PCA and SVM together to verify the existence of a particular group of volcanic rocks and its relationship to geological processes. For the studied example, the results quantitatively verify the existence of a volcanic rock group and reveal a possible relationship between ore-forming processes and the recognized volcanic rocks. This study also demonstrates the feasibility of improvement based on some classical plots for quantitative classification of igneous rocks.

The infracrustal gneisses and related rocks are one of the most important rock units in the rock succession of the Egyptian Nubian Shield. Following the introduction (Sect. 5.1), the types of gneisses in the Egyptian Nubian Shield are discussed in Sect. 5.2. Section 5.3 deals with geochronological data of the gneisses in the ENS where most of the isotopic data of the granitoid gneisses from the Eastern Desert and Sinai support a juvenile Neoproterozoic origin of the gneiss domes. The Rock types of gneiss complex in the ENS area are presented in Sect. 5.4; followed by Sect. 5.5: Gneisses occurrences in the Egyptian Nubian Shield that include the Northern Eastern Desert (Barud, Um Tenassib and Abu Zawal), the Central Eastern Desert (Migif–Hafafit, Meatiq, Sibai, Shalul, Um Had, Shaitain, Gabal Zabara and El-Umra), the Southern Eastern Desert (Um Gunud, Beitan, Khuda, El-Hudi, Wadi Haimur–Abu Swayel, Abu Fas, Abu Rusheid–Sikait and Hamisana) and Sinai (Feiran–Solaf, Taba, Elat, Fjord, Wadi Watir, Qenaia and Wadi Kid); and finally, Sect. 5.6: the core complexes in the Egyptian Nubian Shield, discusses the controversy between existence and non-existence of the core complexes in the Egyptian Nubian Shield.

Sustainable planning and management of natural resources should be done according to integrated watershed planning and management principles. In order to reveal a successful integrated watershed management plan, it is very important to determine the basin characteristics and the distribution of the lands according to elevation, angle, slope and rock types together with the sub-basins of the basin where the planning will be made. For this purpose, the Fırtına river basin, which is a very large rainfall basin, has been divided into two large sub-basin groups, east and west, and the distribution of the lands according to elevation, slope, aspect and rock groups with some land characteristics has been revealed with using the Geographical Information System (GIS). According to the results of the research,the drainage area of the Fırtına river basin is 1155.44 km2. 60.12% of the lands in the western basin group of Fırtına river basin are located on shady exposure and 39.88% on sunny exposure. According to the geological rock groups, the largest land is in the granite-microgranite-granodiorite series with 29041.02 ha (34.96 %) and the largest land according to the slope is in the 19684.21 ha (23.70%) inclination group of 31-40 %. 53.40% of the Durak river basin lands are on shady exposure and 46.60% on sunny exposure. In Durak river basin, the largest land according to slope (8191.90 ha) is in the slope group of 31-40% and the largest land according to the rock group is in the granite-microgranite-grandiorite rock group with 61.68%., Doğal kaynakların sürdürülebilir planlaması ve yönetimi bütünleşik havza planlama ve yönetimi ilkelerine göre yapılmalıdır. Başarılı bir bütünleşik havza planlamanın ortaya konulabilmesi için planlamanın yapılacağı havzanın alt havzaları ile birlikte sahip olduğu havza karakteristik özellikleri ile arazilerin yükselti, bakı, eğim ve kayaç türlerine göre dağılımlarının doğru bir şekilde belirlenmesi oldukça önemlidir. Bu amaçla çok büyük bir yağış havzası olan Fırtına deresi yağış havzası doğu ve batı olmak üzere iki büyük alt havza gurubuna ayrılmış ve sahip olduğu bazı arazi karakteristikleri ile arazilerin yükselti, eğim, bakı ve kayaç guruplarına göre dağılımları Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemi (CBS) yardımıyla ortaya konulmuştur. Araştırma sonucuna göre Fırtına deresi yağış havzasının drenaj alanı 1155.44 km2’dir. Fırtına deresi batı havza gurubundaki arazilerinin % 60.12’si gölgeli bakılar üzerinde, % 39.88’i güneşli bakılar üzerinde yer almaktadır. Jeolojik formasyonlara göre en geniş arazi varlığı 29041.02 ha (%34.96) ile granit-mikrogranit-granodiorit serisinde ve eğime göre en geniş arazi varlığı 19684.21 ha (%23.70) ile %31-40 eğim gurubunda yer almaktadır. Durak deresi yağış havzası arazilerinin % 53.40’ı gölgeli bakılar, % 46.60’ı güneşli bakılar üzerindedir. Durak havzasında eğime göre en geniş arazi varlığı (8191.90 ha) %31-40 eğim gurubunda ve kayaç gurubuna göre en geniş arazi varlığı %61.68 ile granit-mikrogranit-grandiorit kayaç gurubunda yer almaktadır.

Earthquake hazard must be considered by many regions in Indonesia. This is including Nganjuk Regency, the area with intensifies development and where the longest dam in Indonesia is being built. Earthquake hazard studies are conducted using two methods, namely semi-deterministic and probabilistic methods. The results of analyses using the first method show that Nganjuk Regency can be divided into 3 classes of hazards, low level in the southwest region, middle level in the north and high level in the middle of the region. Analyses using the second method reveal that Nganjuk Regency can be classified into two categories, the southwest region which has the potential to experience very strong shocks with an intensity of upper VII MMI to lower VIII MMI and the northern and central region which has the potential of destructive shocks with an intensity of middle VIII MMI. The difference in the results from the two methods can be eliminated by classifying the detail of the existing soil/rock types.

The Sabongari and Nana volcano–plutonic complexes are two of about sixty complexes that outcrop along the Cameroon Line. In both complexes, granites and rhyolites are the prevalent rock types among plutonic and volcanic rocks , respectively. The Nana complex has never been dated, while data ranging from 77 to 49 Ma have been reported for the Sabongari intrusive rocks. These ages appeared inconsistent with field relationships, the oldest ones 77 and 74 Ma being obtained on microgranites that form a WSW–ENE alignment of small plugs within the main granite. We performed 40Ar–39 Ar laser step–heating analyses on a plutonic and a volcanic rock for each complex. The age obtained on Sabongari granite, 57.70 ± 0.44 Ma, is about 1 Ma older than the age obtained on a related trachyte , and consistent with field relationships. Rocks from the Nana complex are younger than those from Sabongari, ranging from 52 to 49 Ma. This is the second paper with 40Ar–39Ar data on the Cameroon Line anorogenic complexes after that on the Hossere Nigo complex, sited at about 240 km to the NE of the study area. Both results challenge earlier K–Ar and Rb–Sr model ages along the Cameroon Line. More 40Ar–39Ar data on a large number of complexes are necessary to better understand their spatial relationships over time.

Raw material selection and transport behaviors are important constraints on Oldowan lithic production strategies. While patterns in toolstone preference at Oldowan sites suggest that physical properties relating to fracture mechanics played a key role in determining selectivity, the durability of rock types was also a critical concern. However, few studies have examined the influence of raw material performance, during subsistence activities, on procurement strategies in the Oldowan industry. Here we report on an actualistic butchery experiment used to measure attrition rates in quartz and quartzite flakes for the purpose of examining raw material selectivity in Oldowan sites from South Africa. Interpretations are focused on the two largest assemblages in this region, Sterkfontein Member 5 East and Swartkrans Member 1 and why over ninety percent of artefacts from these sites reflect a technological preference for the use of vein quartz.

Geological study was carried out along the Kaligandaki and Modi Khola valleys in west Nepal. The area comprises the rock of Lesser Himalayan metasedimentary sequence. Main rock types present in the area are quartzite, phyllite, metasandstone and psammatic phyllite. Schist and gneiss are present in some parts. Ulleri Gneiss is explored in the area. Kusma-Baglung area comprises the spectacular terrace deposits formed at the Quaternary time by the Kaligandaki River and the Modi Khola. The terrace extensively comprises clast of limestone, marble, gneiss, quartzite, schist, phyllite ranging in size from fine matrix to huge boulders derived from the Higher Himalaya. Bulletin of Department of Geology, vol. 20-21, 2018, pp: 29-36

The geodynamic origin of volcanic and sedimentary rocks of the Upper Precambrian Arsha Group of the western slope of the southern Urals is considered. It is shown that both rock types are riftogenic/plume in origin. The problem of the spatial and temporal correlation of the Arsha and Karatau groups requires further study.

Nearly forty years after the return of the first lunar samples to Earth, improvements in laboratory detection limits made possible the first definitive discovery of magmatic water in lunar volcanic samples. The intervening decade has seen an exponential increase in the amount of data on the abundance of magmatic water, and its hydrogen isotope composition, in various rock types recovered from the Moon. Here we review these data and describe how the abundance of water in the lunar interior places important constraints on models for the high-temperature origin and evolution of the Moon.

There are clear differences in the electrical conductivities of the crustal granites of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Because these granites are among the major rock types on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, it is very important to detect the electrical conductivity of granites under high temperatures and pressures to study the electrical conductivity structure of this area. Using impedance spectroscopy at a frequency range of 10−1–106 Hz, the electrical conductivity of the muscovite-granite collected from Yadong was investigated at a confining pressure of 1.0 GPa and temperatures ranging from 577 to 996 K, while the electrical conductivity of the biotite-granite collected from Lhasa was investigated at a pressure of 1.0 GPa and temperatures ranging from 587 to 1382 K. The calculated activation enthalpies of the Yadong muscovite-granite sample is 0.92 eV in the low-temperature range (577–919 K) and 2.16 eV in the high-temperature range (919–996 K). The activation enthalpies of the Lhasa biotite-granite sample is 0.48 eV in the low-temperature range (587–990 K) and 2.06 eV in the high-temperature range (990–1382 K). The change in the activation enthalpies of the granites at different temperature ranges may be associated with the dehydration of the two samples. The electrical conductivities of the granite samples obtained in the laboratory using impedance spectroscopy correspond well with field observations conducted near the sampling points, both in terms of the actual conductivity values and the observed variations between the low-temperature and high-temperature regimes. This correlation of laboratory and field conductivities indicates that the conductivities of the crustal rocks in the two regions closely correspond to granite conductivities. We calculated the electrical conductivities of muscovite-granite and biotite-granite samples using the effective medium and HS boundary models. When applied to the crustal rocks of southern Tibet, the results of the geophysical conductivity profiles lie within the range of laboratory data. Thus, the electrical characteristics of the crustal rocks underlying the southern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau can largely be attributed to granites, with the large changes to high conductivities at increasing depths resulting from the dehydration of crustal rocks with granitic compositions.

A comprehensive laboratory characterization of volcanic rocks belonging to the 1669 lava flow of Mount Etna, recognized as one of the largest and most catastrophic event ever occurred, is presented herein with the aim of investigating on their peculiar mechanical attitude. The multi-disciplinary approach proposed herein pointed out that although originated by the same eruptive event, 1669 trachybasaltic lavas are characterized by relevant differences in porosity and rock fabric, from both the qualitative and quantitative points of view. This is an interesting aspect, because such rocks are quarried for the production of high quality material to be employed for engineering geological purposes even in the “Val di Noto” UNESCO World Heritage site. In this perspective, their detailed characterization is an essential practice, even preparatory for the engineering geological use. To this purpose, this paper provides a focus on the laboratory investigation of these rocks, which according to three different porosity classes, underwent petrographic, physical, mechanical and seismic analyses. Interesting statistical correlations allowed understanding the mutual dependence of the main engineering geological parameters, highlighting how porosity, through both vesicles and microcracks, plays a leading role from the engineering geological point of view. Achieved results provide a scientific casuistry on this topic and are a reliable reference for studies on similar rock types worldwide, since lavas are among the most used rock materials in the engineering geological practice.

Some faults are considered strong because their strength is consistent with the Coulomb criterion under Byerlee's friction, 0.6 μ 0.85 . In marked contrast, numerous studies have documented significant fault weakening induced by fluid-assisted reaction softening that generally takes place during the long-term evolution of the fault. Reaction softening promotes the replacement of strong minerals with phyllosilicates. Phyllosilicate development within foliated and interconnected fault networks has been documented at different crustal depths, in different tectonic regimes and from a great variety of rock types, nominating fluid-assisted reaction softening as a general weakening mechanism within the seismogenic crust. This weakening originates at the grain-scale and is transmitted to the entire fault zone via the interconnectivity of the phyllosilicate-rich zones resulting in a friction as low as 0.1 μ 0.3 . Collectively, geological data and results from laboratory experiments provide strong supporting evidence for structural and frictional heterogeneities within crustal faults. In these structures, creep along weak and rate-strengthening fault patches can promote earthquake nucleation within adjacent strong and locked, rate-weakening portions. Some new frontiers on this research topic regard: 1) when and how a seismic rupture nucleating within a strong patch might propagate within a weak velocity strengthening fault portion, and 2) if creep and slow slip can be accurately detected within the earthquake preparatory phase and therefore represent a reliable earthquake precursor.

Slightly retrograded rocks for edge-ground tool manufacture were used in two different supply systems during recent European prehistory. Mechanical properties of five of these rock types were tested to determine if the most exploited and circulated materials were also the most adequate ones. A series of mechanical tests were chosen to characterize their hardness, elasticity, resistance to friction, and Charpy impact toughness. The results were compared with petrographic variables (mineralogical composition, density, homogeneity, grain size, anisotropy, and presence of retrogression). Subsequent correlations between the tested mechanical properties confirm that density is a good proxy to estimate hardness, elasticity, and resistance to friction of the given rocks. It emerged that the amphibolic hornfels (MJH) most used in Neolithic Central Europe and circulated over large distances was harder than most other tested rocks and compositionally more homogeneous. On a broader European scale, however, MJH is not superior in quality to Iberian gabbros. Both rocks show much poorer mechanical qualities than Alpine high-pressure meta-ophiolites, which were largely ignored by the Early Neolithic populations of Central Europe. Analogies from the Iberian Peninsula also indicate that rocks comparable in quality to MJH, and transformed into Neolithic axe heads, only circulated in an area a few hundred kilometers from their sources. Long-distance transport of MJH is thus only partially explained by its mechanical qualities and rather reflects a wide and well-functioning social and economic network established over large parts of Central Europe which has no parallels in the European Neolithic.

This paper focuses on the latest research on the production of Roman whetstones in northern Gaul. To date, little has been written about this specialised industry. However, three workshops producing whetstones were discovered recently in the north of Gaul in Buizingen (Province of Flemish Brabant, Belgium), Nereth (Province of Liège, Belgium) and Le Châtelet-sur-Sormonne (Department of Ardennes, France). Production debris and rough-outs recovered at these sites allowed us to reconstruct the operational sequence of manufacture, from the choice of raw material to the finished product. Technological studies enabled us to determine the production stages and highlight the similarities and differences between the three study areas. Analyses of the materials reveal the use of fine-grained sedimentary and low-grade metamorphic rocks outcropping near the workshops. All these rocks are linked to the Caledonian inliers of Brabant-London, Stavelot-Venn, and Rocroi. The large amount of waste found at Le Châtelet-sur-Sormonne, far more than that recovered at Buizingen and Nereth, is indicative of the economic importance of this whetstone workshop. This importance is reflected in the fact that whetstones from Le Châtelet-sur-Sormonne are distributed over a large area throughout Belgium, France (Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Picardie and Champagne-Ardenne regions), Germany, and the Netherlands. This paper presents the waste and rough-outs from the three production sites. It also defines rock types and their origins and offers insights into whetstone manufacturing processes and techniques.

Organic reefs are favourable accumulation spaces for hydrocarbons and various mineral resources. A complete Permian organic reef profile about 44 m thick with distribution area no more than 1 km2 is exposed near Lengwu, Tonglu, Zhejiang Province. Examination of outcrops and thin sections revealed that the main reef-building organisms are calcisponges, with inozoans as dominant type. Five types of rocks have been recognized in the reef, and they are calcisponge framestone, calcisponge bafflestone, bindstone, rudstone and bioclastic wackestone. The profile was constructed in three reef-building stages. The thickness of the second stage is largest, followed by the first stage and the third stage is smallest. Each stage started with a framestone or bafflestone, ended as the reef grew near the sea-level, and died because of influx of terrigenous sediments. The development of the Lengwu reef is controlled by biological factors and sea-level changes. Based on the study a reef sedimentary model is established.

Ninety-eight surfaces related to the retreat of the British Ice Sheet (BIS) and dated using Terrestrial Cosmogenic Nuclide Dating (TCND) were sampled using the Schmidt Hammer to expand on relative dating techniques and establish Schmidt Hammer exposure dating (SHED) as an effective method for dating glacial landforms in the UK. The BIS is an effective analogue for contemporary glacial systems but our understanding of its retreat under changing climate conditions is constrained by a limited number of dates obtained from existing methods (14C, OSL). These methods are restricted in their application to glacial environments and while TCND has addressed this to some degree, its cost and potential for outliers encourage the establishment of new techniques. SHED fulfils this requirement by providing a cost-efficient method for obtaining numerous direct ages that are of comparable accuracy and precision to TCND. A multi-lithology approach has established that many rock types are unsuitable for numerical dating. However, a robust calibration curve was generated (R2 ¼ 0.81, p ¼ < 0.01) for granite surfaces and applied to 31 undated granite erratics on Shap Fell, NWEngland. SHED indicates that BIS retreat occurred at 16.5 ± 0.5 ka, a conclusion which supports our current understanding of regional deglaciation and indicates that SHED can be a valuable and cost-effective geochronological tool.

This research study aims at utilizing the ASTER data for lithological mapping of the Fawakhir area, Central Eastern Desert of Egypt. Short wave infrared and thermal infrared channels were processed and interpreted for the potential mapping of the various rock types at the Fawakhir area. A newly developed ASTER band-ratio of 4/7, 4/10, 4/11 is introduced to characterize the lithological units in the area of study. Field visits and laboratory microscopic examinations of selected samples collected from the different exposed rocks in the area of study were carried out. The validation mechanism was based on both calculating statistical optimum index factor (OIF) and matching interpreted lithological boundaries to field data and previously published geologic maps.

Freetown has documented one of the most devastating landslides in the world in 2017. Many debates in the media, few scientific papers and technical documents, have argued with eloquence ascertaining human factors, particularly deforestation and urbanization, as the dominant causative factor. This notion seems to be widely accepted for all other slides by the communities, government agencies and departments. Therefore, this work attempts to expand on existing public knowledge by demonstrating the less influential or insignificant human factors which can have impacts on certain landslide occurrences in the Freetown Layered-Complex. The representative landslide considered for this study occurred beyond the vicinity of urbanized zone. Therefore, to establish a clear understanding of the actual causative factors, fieldwork and laboratory investigations were undertaken. During the field survey, we assessed the rock type, discontinuities, geomorphology and hydrological influence of the landslide. The specific rock series underlying the landslide was confirmed through thin section analysis at the National Minerals Agency (NMA). DCP tests and laboratory analyses enhanced the derivation of geotechnical properties of the residual soil/regolith.This work systematically presented how natural conditions, such as: geology (rock types and tectonic signatures), geomorphology, hydrology and the geotechnical properties of the slope soil, have interplayed in the occurrence of the landslide event. In addition, the slip surface of the landslide occurred at a depth below the reach of plant activities (2.6 m). This information may help modify public messages by institutions and can be a source of useful information for the country’s Landslide Disaster Management Department (LDMD).

Numerous studies on active mountain ranges have demonstrated the interaction between tectonics and climate in shaping topography. Here we explore how variations in rock types have affected the topographic development of the Pyrenees since cessation of orogenesis ca. 20 Ma. Our study is based on a multidisciplinary approach and integrates topographic analyses, rock strength measurements and thermal modelling of low-temperature thermochronological data published across the Central Pyrenees. Results indicate a strong influence of rock strength in determining the post-orogenic morphology of the Pyrenees. We observe a correlation between rock strength and the normalized channel steepness index ( k s n ) of the different lithologies. Moreover, the highest topography is dominated by the Variscan plutonic massifs which have highest rock strength. Consequently, the drainage divide appears to track the position of these massifs. Abrupt deceleration of exhumation recorded in inverse modelling of low-temperature thermochronologic data suggests that the exhumation of the Variscan massifs also played role in lowering in erosion rates over the massifs during orogenesis.

The Romeral shear zone marks the geological boundary between the physiographic Central and Western cordilleras of the Colombian Andes. It demarcates and encompasses the main locus of deformation associated with the amalgamation and geological-structural evolution of the Northern Andean region during the Meso-Cenozoic, although as an ancient plate boundary, its origins may be traced into the Late Paleozoic. Today, Romeral corresponds to a km-scale shear zone containing poly-deformed, structurally juxtaposed fragments and slivers of a wide range of rock types, of varying ages and diverse origins, including metaigneous and metasedimentary blocks of the disjointed and reworked paleo-autochthon, fragments of pericratonic and possibly exotic oceanic margin, and late, autochthonous siliciclastic and volcanic sequences, each reflecting distinct development stages in the complex plate dynamics of the Northern Andean paleo-margin.

The structural lineaments developed in the Kulon Progo Mountains, which is mainly composed of Tertiary volcanic rocks. The direction and distribution of these lineaments density differs from one area to another. This research was conducted to reveal the geological factor of controlling the variation of existing lineaments density. Lineaments delineation is done on the whole area on the satellite image of Kulon Progo Mountain area. From the lineaments map is then made a lineaments density variation map. Lineaments density variation map that are overlaid by volcanic rock distribution, based on the results of field studies, will result in a relationship between the geological structure density and the existing rock types and facies of volcanic rocks. The result of alignments density analysis shows high density values 3-6 km/km2 especially located at proximal volcanic rock facies. Low density values of 1-3 km/km2 are mainly located in medial and distal volcanic rock facies.

Neolithic societies produced and circulated axeheads made out of different rock types over substantial distances. These tools were indispensable to their economic reproduction, but they also demanded considerable manufacturing efforts. The material properties of the raw materials chosen to produce axeheads had a direct effect on the grinding and polishing processes, as well as on the use life of these tools. However, surprisingly little is known about the criteria followed by these societies when it came to choosing adequate raw materials, or why certain rocks were exploited in greater volumes and circulated over larger distances than others. In order to determine the material parameters ruling axe production, circulation, and use, a range of different rock types was submitted to mechanical tests. For the first time, comparative values relating to the resistance to friction and to breakage are presented for some of the most important rock types used for the manufacture of axeheads by the Neolithic communities of Western Europe. These mechanical parameters allow us to approach hypothetical production and use values, which are then correlated with the distances travelled and the volumes of rock in circulation. This combination of petrographic, mechanical, and paleo-economic information leads to new understandings of the principles ruling Neolithic supply and distribution networks and the economic rationale behind them. It reveals how deeply the economic and symbolic meanings of these outstanding Neolithic artefacts were rooted in their production and use values.

Iron-rich rocks have very low solubility. Nonetheless, more than 3000 iron-formation caves (IFCs) have been identified in five major areas in Brazil. Caves can develop entirely in the iron formation or in a surficial iron-rich conglomerated known as canga, as well as in the contact between these two rock types. IFCs average 29 m in length, with the longest identified at 372 m long. The caves tend to be only a few meters below the surface, following the slope of the terrain, with an irregular passage morphology comprising larger roughly circular chambers, linked by smaller passages. Ceiling pendants, pillars, and numerous smaller inaccessible conduits are common features, as is a rich and diverse microbial population, presumably surviving on a combination of organic rich plant material from the surface and the iron oxides within the cave. Iron Formation caves are accessible voids that must be viewed as a continuum with the high porosity of the canga. Both the caves and the canga have been shown to host a diverse and little-known fauna comprising many troglobites. Approximately 30% of the caves have at least one troglomorphic species, the dominant groups being Araneae, Coleoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera, Acari, and Collembola. Over 150 troglomorphic species have been identified, although only a few have been formally described. Iron-formation caves and ecosystems are threatened by the increase in commercial demand for iron, which has prompted new mining operations and the expansion of existing ones, endangering the existence of significant caves.

Heating stones are an ancient technology found across time and space in the archaeological record. Most often studied in the contexts of cooking activities and overall density at a location, the decision-making used in obtaining stones to heat for particular tasks has been overlooked. The availability of stones varies from place to place and is controlled by the local supply. On the rocky beaches of Puget Sound, part of the glacially-carved Salish Sea in Northwestern North America, the choices are vast, as the supply of cobbles and pebbles is heterogeneous and ubiquitous. Archaeologists have previously demonstrated that rocks which are heated and quenched in water, or cooled quickly, break in distinct ways compared to rocks which are heated and air-dried, or cooled slowly. The fine-grain and coarse-grain textures of different rocks influence the breakage and fracture patterns resulting from expansion and contraction during heating and quenching. If field archaeologists can differentiate slow-cooled versus fast-cooled culturally-heated rocks, researchers can begin to consider behavior related to boiling stone technology in the Salish Sea. This study tests the utility of coarse-grain and fine-grain rocks for repeated use in boiling by examining the thermal properties of different local rock types as well as the susceptibility of each rock type to breakage when heated and submerged in water.

Summary Indonesia with its complex tectonic structure are gifted by abundant resources spreading along its archipelagos in both biological and geological resources, in terms of landscapes, fossils, rocks, and other geological aspects. Geopark as a product of these setup are now intensively developed in Indonesia as well as other countries. One of well-known geoparks in Indonesia is Merangin Geopark that administratively located in four regencies, including Merangin Regency, Kerinci, Sarolangun, and West Tanjung Jabung. This geopark is mostly acknowledged for its finding fossils and geological landscapes that have a high scientific value in terms of geology for scholars interested in studies related to the earth formation history for education and research purposes. Focusing in geological condition of Merangin Paelobotany Park as a core region of Geopark Merangin, this study can be utilized as a comprehensive study to enlarge the references regarding the geological condition in this study area. There are at least 18 geosites available in this area, consists of diverse morphology, such as lakes, caves, rivers, underground rivers, waterfalls, and mountain; unique geological structures; variety of rock types; and Araucarioxylon wood fossil as the icon of Merangin Geopark with other various fossils - plant roots, trunks, leaves, and marine animals.

The Hautavaara sanukitoid massif, located in the southern Vedlozero-Segozero greenstone belt, Karelia, is differentiated from monzogabbro to moderately alkaline granite. Its structure and the petrographic and petrochemical characteristics of all its rock types are discussed. The granosyenites are subjected to mean temperature variations and display Au-Mo-geochemical specialization. Gold-sulphide-quartz vein mineralization and molybdenite mineralization are confined to them.

The formation and eventual preservation of high-pressure mineral assemblages in subducted continental crust are a long-standing issue with kinetic aspects and important geophysical implications in terms of buoyancy. The issue is especially acute in the internal crystalline massifs of the Western Alps, in which the dominant rock-type, metagranite, hardly bears evidence for high-pressure transformation whereas subordinate rock types clearly point to high or very high pressure conditions. The discovery of well-preserved jadeite-bearing rocks in orthogneiss of the western Gran Paradiso massif, reported here, revives the questioning and is the opportunity to describe uncommon mineral assemblages involving nepheline, preiswerkite, as well as a new trioctahedral mica.

In view of the absence of an unambiguous intrusive contact between the main mafic rocks varieties in the Monchetundra massif, the latter was considered for a long time as a large complex of syngenetic mafic rocks. On the basis of data derived from study of the outcrops and drill core samples, researchers defined various numbers of zones characterized by certain rock types. The results of geological–petrographic investigations and data on the U–Pb system in zircon and baddeleyite provided grounds for revision of the views on the structure of the massif: at least four groups of different ages of mafic rocks are now definable in the Monchetundra massif. In this communication, we discuss the relations between two groups of mafic rocks and the results of their U–Pb isotopic dating, which imply a long multiphase formation of the massif.

This study mineralogically and geotechnically assesses the Antalya tufa rock types, which are highly variable in nature. Geological observations, geotechnical site investigations, and in-situ and laboratory tests have been performed to determine the parameters (i.e., organic matter content, rock fabric, apparent porosity, unit weight, uniaxial compressive strength, Young's modulus, tensile strength, cohesion and angle of internal friction) that may have a significant influence on tufa rock behavior and to develop a comprehensive geotechnical database for the Antalya tufa rock. The geotechnical database was utilized for the engineering classification of the Antalya tufa rocks using the GSI classification system.

Hypotheses for the age of the western Grand Canyon (WGC) range from younger than 6 Ma to older than 70 Ma. We study the relationships among topography, geology, and available erosion rates in space and time to place constraints on plausible canyon incision histories. Evidence suggests that lateral retreat of the Shivwits Plateau escarpment left a lithologically controlled bench on the Sanup Plateau, but the Hualapai Plateau is beveled indiscriminately across rock types of the Paleozoic stratigraphic section. A period of accelerated base-level fall in the Tertiary is implicated by the canyon incised into the beveled Hualapai Plateau surface, consistent with higher erosion rates observed in canyons than on the surrounding plateau. Streams draining the Hualapai Plateau preserve relict headwater segments that were equilibrated with a slower base-level-fall rate before canyon incision. These relict segments are now separated from the Grand Canyon by knickpoints indicative of a transient landscape. Relief production since the beveling of the Hualapai Plateau is ∼1000 m in the WGC. Comparison of hillslope and channel morphologies between the Grand Wash Cliffs and the WGC provides a test to distinguish hypothesized ages of canyon incision. The data strongly suggest that carving of the WGC is younger than relief production due to slip on the Grand Wash fault ca. 18–12 Ma. Thus the geomorphic data are only fully consistent with the late Tertiary, transient incision model of canyon incision beginning at integration after 6 Ma.

International audience; This paper reassesses polished spindle-shaped or long axes with round cross-sections, found between the end of the 19th century and the present time, following the discovery of axe fragments in a dated Middle Neolithic II context in Lower Normandy. They are made in dolerites, or other similar rock types from the ancient massif. They are exclusively found in the north-western quarter of France, but are paradoxically concentrated in peri-Armorican sedimentary regions. The plains of Caen and Alençon appear to be over-represented but this is due to the fact that they have been more intensively investigated. Most of the artefacts are working axes and were used, but they also present similarities with jade artefacts and can be considered as symbolic objects. They could be a later offshoot of Bégude-type axes, or to a lesser extent of Danube-type adzes, or a syncretism of both, as both of these types of objects have been recorded in the Armorican Massif.; Parfois signalées depuis la fin du XIXe siècle, les haches polies à section ronde, en forme de fuseau ou de boudin, ont été réexaminées après la découverte de fragments en contexte daté sur des sites du Néolithique moyen II de Basse-Normandie. Elles sont façonnées dans des dolérites, voire dans d’autres roches de massif ancien proches d’aspect. Leur répartition est propre au quart nord-ouest de la France et est paradoxalement concentrée dans les régions sédimentaires péri-armoricaines. Le poids des plaines de Caen et d’Alençon paraît ainsi surreprésenté mais les données y ont été davantage recherchées. Si la plupart des pièces ont servi et ressortissent aux haches de travail, plusieurs convergences avec les pièces en jade permettent d’y voir également des objets-signes. Elles pourraient être une déclinaison tardive des haches de type Bégude, voire dans une moindre mesure des herminettes danubiennes, ou un syncrétisme des deux, ces deux familles d’objets étant aujourd’hui attestées sur le Massif armoricain.

Radon monitoring represents an important investigation tool for environmental changes assessment and geochemical hazard surveillance. Despite anomalous radon emissions are commonly observed prior to earthquakes or volcanic eruptions, radon monitoring alone is not yet successful in correctly predicting these catastrophic events because contrasting radon signals are unexpectedly measured by lithologically distinct areas. This contribution aims to summarize and integrate natural and laboratory studies pertaining to the transport behavior of radon in different rock types experiencing variable stress and thermal regimes at subvolcanic conditions. The final purpose is to ignite novel and pioneer experimental researches exploring the causes and consequences of radon anomalous emissions, in order to elucidate in full the relationship between the physicochemical changes in substrate rocks and the radon signal.

Based on UNESCO, Geopark is a defined area with a series of specific geological features, variety of endemic flora and fauna aimed for local and regional educational and economic development. Several areas in Indonesia had been designated as geopark and one of them is at Bangka Belitung Province by Indonesian Geopark Authority in 2017. Potential development of Bangka Belitung Geopark based on the uniqueness of its million years old granite rocks, but mostly were located and land-based and none referred to coastal and islands oriented. This paper will focused to explore and develop the uniqueness of coastal areas and islands into a new concept of Marine Geopark paradigm as a cluster of geological uniqueness of granite rocks, its endemic coastal flora and fauna, maritime anthropology as well as many type of sunken war-ship and merchant treasures. Aims of the study were to explore and develop as pioneer step of new paradigm and concept of Marine Geopark for educational and tourism purposes especially Geo Tourism and its management. The study reveals the uniqueness of underwater coral uplift onto coastal land at north Bangka and islands granite rock types on Mindanau, Kelapan, Begadung islands, many endemic orchids such as Gammato phylum speciosum, Dillenia. sp, Hoya. spp, herbal vegetation’s in some marginal sandy coastal areas, endemic fauna of Tarsius bancanus, Rasbora bankanensis, old ethnic house for homestay, the Hinduism maritime anthropological sites of Kota Kapur, many sites of sunken merchant and war-ship at Mindanau islands and the specific of the Gaspar strait oceanographic phenomenon. Ancient tribes of Suku Lum, Bubungtujuh at north Bangka and Suku Sekak of Belitung. The designated site for marine geopark then was protected legally with a community based village law. Information system based Webserver will be design and developed to speed and strengthen for regional and global access of the Bangka Belitung marine geopark information and management using PhP and MySQL and the information system that can be access via Internet in all over the world by people using the computer and smartphone.

International audience; Eurasian bifacial series present some common features, but are chiefly characterized by wide-ranging diversity in terms of bifacial technology and blank types, whereas the heavy-duty component presents a limited number of types or categories. Heavy-duty tools are present throughout the geographical areas but the frequency of handaxes and/or cleavers is generally low, except in some regions, where they are made on flakes and/or cobbles/pebbles, on siliceous stones or other rock types. So far, it appears to be generally accepted that bifacial technology became widespread from 800 to 700 ka onwards, both for Europe and Asia, except for some earlier occurrences in the Levant and India. It would thus be reasonable to infer that bifacial technology first reached the Levant from Africa before moving toward Asia, then Europe. However, the existing data point to a much more complex reality, suggesting contemporaneous technological worlds, with or without links between them. In the state of current knowledge, and based on the methodology used for analysing lithic series, it is impossible to clearly argue in favour of either a unique phenomenon with movements of hominins or/and ideas from an African source, or to point to evidence of several onsets of bifacial technology over time on a local substratum. The palaeoanthropological background shows the difficulties involved in characterizing the few available hominin fossils and clearly relating them to bifacial technology. The current context suggests that each area should be analysed independently. Accumulative technological processes in some areas due to successive arrivals and the influence of the local substratum, and local onsets must be considered, as these contribute to the diversity of the strategies encountered and the varied forms of bifacial technology.; Selon les zones géographiques et selon les séries comparées, l’Eurasie livre des séries bifaciales qui partagent des traits communs, mais, dans le temps et dans l’espace, c’est la diversité qui les caractérise. Les outils bifaciaux sont toujours présents, mais avec des fréquences réduites. Ils sont façonnés selon des stratégies variées, sur des supports et des matériaux eux-mêmes variés. Les données récentes attestent qu’ils se généralisent à partir de 800 à 700 ka à la fois en Europe et en Asie, excepté quelques témoignages plus anciens au Levant et en Inde. Il serait facile d’admettre que la technologie bifaciale a tout d’abord atteint le Levant avant l’Asie orientale et l’Europe. La réalité est plus complexe, suggérant des mondes technologiques contemporains étant ou non en relation. Les données dont nous disposons ne permettent pas à l’heure actuelle de concevoir un unique phénomène ayant abouti à la diffusion d’un Acheuléen est-africain par des mouvements de populations ou d’idées. Selon les méthodologies employées, des preuves d’émergence locale ne sont pas toujours claires selon les zones géographiques, par manque de données ou de datations. Les données paléoanthropologiques confirment la difficulté de relier des hommes aux outils bifaciaux et à les nommer. La réalité est que chaque secteur doit être étudié indépendamment, certains livrant des « outils bifaciaux », d’autres des « bifaces ». Des transformations locales ou bien issues de l’influence de nouvelles idées ou de groupes humains différents sont autant de possibilités et scénarios pour expliquer la diversité des stratégies rencontrées, démontrant la plasticité de la technologie bifaciale

The earliest Russian geologic map, the “Map of the Environs of the Nerchinsk Mining Establishment (1789–1794)”, was found in the Central State Historical Archive, Leningrad in 1925. At that time it was described by Presnyakov (1927). Shortly after that, the map was lost from view and was not available for study until recently. This paper investigates the provenance and history of the manuscript map in six sheets. It is likely that the Russian government commissioned the map in order to assess the mineral resources of the Nerchinsk district. The map was the result of six summer field seasons where the six base maps showing stream networks and topography were assembled using compasses and tapes. The rock types were superimposed on the base maps and depicted using different colors. The mapping effort was overseen by Egor Barboth de Marny, the director of the Nerchinsk mining establishment, and the fieldwork was undertaken by Dorofey Lebedev, Mikhail Ivanov and Alexey Cheredov. The innovative use of color may have been inspired by earlier maps of mining districts in Germany and suggested by Benedict Franz Johann Hermann, a member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.

We employ a numerical model describing the evolution of secondary porosity in a single fracture embedded in soluble rock (limestone, gypsum, and anhydrite) to study the evolution of isolated fractures in different rock types. Our main focus is three-fold: The identification of shallow versus deep flow paths and their evolution for different rock types; the effect of precipitation of the dissolved material in the fracture; and finally the complication of fracture enlargement in fractures composed of several different soluble materials. Our results show that the evolution of fractures composed of limestone and gypsum is comparable, but the evolution time scale is drastically different. For anhydrite, owing to its difference from calcite in the kinetical rate law describing the removal of soluble rock, the evolution is even faster. Precipitation of the dissolved rock due to changes in the hydrochemical conditions can clog fractures fairly fast, thus changing the pattern of preferential pathways in the soluble aquifer, especially with depth. Finally, limestone fractures coated with gypsum, as occasionally observed in caves, will result in a substantial increase in fracture enlargement with time, thus giving these fractures a hydraulic advantage over pure limestone fractures in their competition for capturing flow. Key words: soluble rock, single fracture, dissolution and precipitation, inception horizon. Odvisnost kraskega razvoja razpoke od vrste in zaporedja vodotopnih kamnin, skozi katere poteka Z numericnim modelom smo raziskovali razvoj sekundarne poroznosti v enodimenzionalni razpoki v apnencu, sadri in anhidridu. Cilji raziskav so bili: 1) ugotoviti razlike med razvojem plitvih in globokih razpok v razlicnih kamninah; 2) oceniti ucinek morebitnega izlocanja enega od mineralov v razpoki in 3) dinamika rasti razpoke, ki gre skozi plasti razlicnih kamnin. Rezultati kažejo na primerljiv razvoj razpok v apnencu in sadri, pri cemer je cas razvoja v obeh kamninah precej razlicen. V anhidridu je zaradi drugacne kinetike raztapljanja razvoj se hitrejsi. Izlocanje ob spreminjajocih se geokemicnih pogojih lahko hitro zamasi razpoke in posebej v vecjih globinah spremeni poti razvoja mreže kraskih prevodnikov. V primeru, ko so razpoke v apnencu prekrite s plastjo sadre, kar v naravi pogosto opažamo, je hitrost sirjenja najhitrejsa, kar daje vodnim potem vzdolž takih razpok izrazito primerjalno prednost pri zajemanju razpoložljivega toka. Kljucne besede: vodotopne kamnine, enostavna razpoka, raztapljanje in izlocanje, incepcijski horizont.

Rising international interest in scientific and commercial Moon exploration programs require cost-efficient logistical solutions regarding raw- and construction materials for a permanent residence on our Earth’s satellite. Lunar regolith soil is the most abundant resource; its technical exploitation would comprise a major leap forward towards the construction of infrastructure on the Moon. Current efforts dedicated to the technological exploitation of lunar regolith require terrestrial analogue materials (simulants). Such simulants are indispensable for Earth-based development and testing of hardware later used on the lunar surface (e.g. rovers or scientific equipment) as well as technologies that will process regolith directly. However, available simulants are material-specific which limits their use to tests for site specific projects on the lunar surface. At TU Braunschweig, we are actually developing a regolith simulant system that allows the flexible adaptation of regolith properties to meet the technological testing requirements. That planned process for the production of customized simulants is presented in the paper. The TUBS-M and TUBS-T simulants are based on basaltic and anorthositic bedrock, respectively. These two basic simulant components, which match the two dominant lunar surface rock types, are now fully developed. Their characteristics in terms of mineralogy, chemical composition, and physical properties are presented in this paper. Currently, methods for the production of other important components of the regolith (glasses, agglutinates) are in development and additional minerals will be analyzed, which will enable the production of highly customized simulants for in-situ resource utilization (ISRU) purposes beginning in 2020.

The Finnish plan for final disposal of nuclear waste is an underground repository in crystalline bedrock in Olkiluoto. In the safety analysis of the repository, it is vital to know the transport properties of the bedrock. We set out to investigate these properties by measuring porosities of rock samples with Ar-gas pycnometry and diffusion coefficients and permeabilities of the same samples with a He-gas method. Diffusion of gases is about 10,000 times faster than diffusion of elements in water, and thus the gas methods are practical tools when determining the properties of relatively tight samples. The porosities were 0.44–0.63 % for pegmatitic granite (three samples) and 0.19–2.9 % for veined gneiss (15 samples). The effective diffusion coefficients were \( 3.2 \times 10^{-9}\)–\(8.2 \times 10^{-9}\,{\mathrm {m}}^2/{\mathrm {s}} \) for pegmatitic granite and \( 5.0 \times 10^{-10}\)–\(6.7 \times 10^{-9}\,{\mathrm {m}}^2/{\mathrm {s}} \) for veined gneiss and the permeabilities \( 5.9\,\times 10^{-19}\)–\(6.4 \times 10^{-18}\,{\mathrm {m}}^2 \) and \( 1.4 \times 10^{-20}\)–\(8.6 \times 10^{-17}\,{\mathrm {m}}^2 \) for the same rock types, respectively. We also investigated the dependences of said properties of one another, and found a correlation between effective diffusion coefficient and permeability.