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Most long-distance migrating passerines that breed in Europe spend their winters in Africa, with only a few species migrating eastward to spend the non-breeding period in South Asia. The use of the Indo-European flyway is rare and has been poorly studied so far. However, it is extremely interesting as within that system we are currently witnessing a recent range expansion of European breeding long distance migrants and thus the lengthening of migration routes. It may therefore conceal a unique migratory strategies and behaviour that can help us to understand the underlying factors and mechanisms determining the evolution of migration routes, strategies and breeding range extinction. Based on light-level geolocator we reveal a first track of the Citrine Wagtail (Motacilla citreola) migration, providing insight into the migration pattern, timing and behaviour of the species that recently has extended its migration routes. Unexpectedly, the studied individual did not retrace a recent range expansion that runs north and east from the Caspian Sea but followed a migration route running south form the Caspian sea, suggesting possible presence of an alternative species range expansion. The overall migration distance between the breeding site in Poland and the non-breeding site in Pakistan was about 10,420 km and included two endurance movement phases (920 and 2240 km) covering 30% of the whole journey length, with an average movement speed of 574 km/day. We explain this migration behaviour as an adaptation for crossing the ecological barriers imposed by arid environments.

Mesotrophic rich fens, that is, groundwater-fed mires, may be long-lasting, as well as transient ecosystems, displaced in time by poor fens, bogs, forests or eutrophic reeds. We hypothesized that fen stability is controlled by plant stress caused by waterlogging with calcium-rich and nutrient-poor groundwater, which limits expansion of hummock mosses, tussock sedges and trees. We analysed 32 European Holocene macrofossil profiles of rich fens using plant functional traits (PFTs) which indicate the level of plant stress in the environment: canopy height, clonal spread, diaspore mass, specific leaf area, leaf dry matter content, Ellenberg moisture value, hummock-forming ability, mycorrhizal status and plant functional groups. Six PFTs, which formed long-term significant trends during mire development, were compiled as rich fen stress indicator (RFSI). We found that RFSI values at the start of fen development were correlated with the thickness of subsequently accumulated rich fen peat. RFSI declined in fens approaching change into another mire type, regardless whether it was shifting into bog, forest or eutrophic reeds. RFSI remained comparatively high and stable in three rich fens, which have not terminated naturally until present times. By applying PFT analysis to macrofossil data, we demonstrated that fens may undergo a gradual autogenic process, which lowers the ecosystem’s resistance and enhances shifts to other mire types. Long-lasting rich fens, documented by deep peat deposits, are rare. Because autogenic processes tend to alleviate stress in fens, high levels of stress are needed at initial stages of rich fen development to enable its long persistence and continuous peat accumulation.

Peatlands are the “kidneys” of river basins. However, intensification of agriculture and forestry in Europe has resulted in the degradation of peatlands and their biodiversity (i.e., species, habitats and processes in ecosystems), thus impairing water retention, nutrient filtration, and carbon capture. Restoration of peatlands requires assessment of patterns and processes, and spatial planning. To support strategic planning of protection, management, and restoration of peatlands, we assessed the conservation status of three peatland types within the trans-border Neman River basin. First, we compiled a spatial peatland database for the two EU and two non-EU countries involved. Second, we performed quantitative and qualitative gap analyses of fens, transitional mires, and raised bogs at national and sub-basin levels. Third, we identified priority areas for local peatland restoration using a local hotspot analysis. Nationally, the gap analysis showed that the protection of peatlands meets the Convention of Biological Diversity’s quantitative target of 17%. However, qualitative targets like representation and peatland qualities were not met in some regional sub-basins. This stresses that restoration of peatlands, especially fens, is required. This study provides an assessment methodology to support sub-basin-level spatial conservation planning that considers both quantitative and qualitative peatland properties. Finally, we highlight the need for developing and validating evidence-based performance targets for peatland patterns and processes and call for peatland restoration guided by social-ecological research and inter-sectoral collaborative governance.

The paper investigates the issues of evaluating structural changes in the regions’ economic development based on the comprehensive index assessment technology. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on regional development and changes in the regional structure is considered. The authors propose the use of block convolution to design a comprehensive index based on a set of metric initial indicators that characterize the regions’ economic development. Grouping the set of initial indicators is carried out based on the method of an extreme grouping of parameters and the method of principal components. A weighted linear additive convolution was used to develop partial composite indices and an economic development comprehensive index. The practical approbation was carried out for the regions of Ukraine according to the data of 9 months of 2019 and the same period of 2020. To establish the regions’ structure, we used the division of the comprehensive index values into intervals and further distributing regions into classes according to the level of economic development. There is a general decrease in the value of the integrated indicator in 2020, caused by the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. However, no significant changes in the structure of the regions were detected, which indicates an equally negative impact of the pandemic for all regions of Ukraine.

The advances and retreats of ice sheets during Pleistocene significantly changed high- and mid-latitude landscapes and hydrological systems, albeit differently, in North America and Europe. On the southern margin of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) in the Baltic Sea basin, a specific type of valley has developed between glacial margins and upland or mountain slopes. We studied new geological data (boreholes, electrical resistivity imaging (ERI) from this geomorphic setting in Northeast Poland to understand: (1) how the landscape and river network evolved to eventually produce peat mires during the Holocene, and (2) the nature of groundwater recharge to fens in the upper Biebrza Valley. We present the results on a geological cross-section with hydrogeological interpretation. We also discuss regional geomorphology. In addition, we present the LGM extent derived from a spatial distribution of Vistulian (Weichselian) terminal moraines. These end moraines are also interpreted as Saalian kames. Thus, we additionally present another method of LGM extent delineation from a physicogeographical division. We link the steep slopes of the studied valley walls (kame terrace fronts) with thermokarst erosion in the periglacial zone. We then document the hydrogeological window (DISCONTINUITY in the till layer over the confined aquifer), which enables the outflow of groundwater into the peat bog. Although minerotrophic fen mire development in the study area is likely to be sustained in the near future through sufficient groundwater supply, the projected capture of the Biebrza River by the Neman River will not allow for sustaining peatland development.

Despite many years of experience in the river restoration field, which has become one of the most promising areas of water resources management, significant challenges and problems remain. These include the scope and scale of restoration measures, developing the reference model, assessment of restoration success, and the engagement of local stakeholders. Progress in addressing these challenges to river restoration could be achieved by changes in current approaches through the appreciation and integration of local communities and their local ecological knowledge (LEK). The results of discussion on ecological restoration indicate that ecological knowledge, which combines the interests of local communities and the environment, could be used in restoration projects. However, in the case of river restoration, this type of knowledge is systematically overlooked. In our paper, we discuss common river restoration problems and supportive elements that may be found in LEK. We conclude that the local stakeholders&rsquo, involvement and strong establishment of their position in the river restoration processes should be reconsidered. We believe that the application of LEK has large potential for improving water resources management and restoration of aquatic ecosystems and remains a key factor in a successful future of river restoration.

Large-scale re-establishment of wetland buffer zones (WBZ) along rivers is regarded as an effective measure in order to reduce non-point source nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) pollution in agricultural catchments. We estimated efficiency and costs of a hypothetical establishment of WBZs along all watercourses in an agricultural landscape of the lower Narew River catchment (north-eastern Poland, 16,444 km2, amounting to 5% of Poland) by upscaling results obtained in five sub-catchments (1087 km2). Two scenarios were analysed, with either rewetting selected wetland polygons that collect water from larger areas (polygonal WBZs) or reshaping and rewetting banks of rivers (linear WBZs), both considered in all ecologically suitable locations along rivers. Cost calculation included engineering works necessary in order to establish WBZs, costs of land purchase where relevant, and compensation costs of income forgone to farmers (needed only for polygonal WBZs). Polygonal WBZs were estimated in order to remove 11%&ndash, 30% N and 14%&ndash, 42% P load from the catchment, whereas linear WBZs were even higher with 33%&ndash, 82% N and 41%&ndash, 87% P. Upscaled costs of WBZ establishment for the study area were found to be 8.9 M EUR plus 26.4 M EUR per year (polygonal WBZ scenario) or 170.8 M EUR (linear WBZ scenario). The latter value compares to costs of building about 20 km of an express road. Implementation of buffer zones on a larger scale is thus a question of setting policy priorities rather than financial impossibility.

Intensification of agriculture and ongoing urban sprawl exacerbate pressures on rivers. Small rivers in agricultural landscapes are especially exposed to excessive technical actions implemented in order to allow for harvesting river water for irrigation, draining agricultural water and receiving sewage. Regular dredging and macrophyte removal strongly interfere with the global need for preserving river biodiversity that allows agricultural lowland rivers to remain refuges for a variety of species, and—accordingly—to keep water bodies resilient for the benefit of society. In order to provide a comprehensive look at the influence of agricultural lowland river management on the ecological status of these water bodies, we conducted a literature review and a meta-analysis. For the structured literature review we selected 203 papers reflecting on the response of aquatic ecosystems to dredging and macrophyte management actions. The database of scientific contributions developed for our study consists of papers written by the authors from 33 countries (first authorship) addressing dredging, macrophyte removal, status of fish and macroinvertebrates as well as the general ecological status of lowland agricultural rivers. We revealed that 96% of the analyzed papers indicated unilateral, negative responses of aquatic ecosystems, particularly macroinvertebrates, ichthyofauna and macrophyte composition, to maintenance measures. We revealed that studies conducted in the European Union on the ecological status of rivers appeared to significantly increase in quantity after the implementation of the Water Framework Directive. Finally, we concluded that day-to-day management of lowland agricultural rivers requires revision in terms of compliance with environmental conservation requirements and the recurrent implementation of technical measures for river maintenance.

Study region Northeast Poland, Biebrza Basin. Study focus Studying reference ecosystems and their specific features provides information to be used as background principles for ecosystem management. In the case of riparian wetlands, these are hydrological indicators (such as average water levels, flooding extents and flood duration) that are either used as criteria for ecosystem conservation or remain easy-to-measure targets for habitat restoration. We focused on revealing whether any trends in flood extents and durations of inundation exist within near-natural temperate floodplains persisting under the natural lowland river flow regime. We analysed whether the fraction of inundation time in a year (FIT) changed over time. River discharge data from 1951 to 2011 applied as boundary conditions in a 1D hydrodynamic model were used to generate flood extents and durations in the Lower Basin of the Biebrza Valley. New hydrological insights for the region We found no substantial trends in flood extents and flood durations in both time-dependent mean and standard deviation. We revealed that the average, long-term values of the FIT, influencing the persistence of Caricetum approprinquatae, Caricetum gracilis, Glycerietum maximae and Phragmitetum communis, reached, respectively, 0.33, 0.43, 0.49 and 0.53 and did not present trends. Variability of the FIT within particular plant communities was high. The main challenges in conservation of temperate riparian wetlands are likely related to appropriate management addressing nonlinear climatic pressures.

Modelling groundwater depths in floodplains and peatlands remains a basic approach to assessing hydrological conditions of habitats. Groundwater flow models used to compute groundwater heads are known for their uncertainties, and the calibration of these models and the uncertainty assessments of parameters remain fundamental steps in providing reliable data. However, the elevation data used to determine the geometry of model domains are frequently considered deterministic and hence are seldom considered a source of uncertainty in model-based groundwater level estimations. Knowing that even the cutting-edge laser-scanning-based digital elevation models have errors due to vegetation effects and scanning procedure failures, we provide an assessment of uncertainty of water level estimations that remain basic data for wetland ecosystem assessment and management. We found that the uncertainty of the digital elevation model (DEM) significantly influenced the results of the assessment of the habitat’s hydrological conditions expressed as groundwater depths. In extreme cases, although the average habitat suitability index (HSI) assessed in a deterministic manner was defined as ‘unsuitable’, in a probabilistic approach (grid-cell-scale estimation), it reached a value of 40% probability, signifying ‘optimum’ or ‘tolerant’. For the 24 habitats analysed, we revealed vast differences between HSI scores calculated for individual grid cells of the model and HSI scores computed as average values from the set of grid cells located within the habitat patches. We conclude that groundwater-modelling-based decision support approaches to wetland assessment can result in incorrect management if the quality of DEM has not been addressed in studies referring to groundwater depths.

Observational data on greenhouse gases exchange between ecosystems and the atmosphere are crucial in understanding the global climate mechanisms. Among different methods of estimation of this exchange, the eddy-covariance (EC) technique provides a direct measure of the net flux density across the atmosphere-ecosystem interface. Still, such data are highly scarce for Central European wetlands. In this work, we present the results of two years (2013–2014) of continuous open-path EC measurements of methane (CH 4 ) and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) fluxes at the wetlands of the Biebrza National Park in northeastern Poland – one of the biggest coherent lowland wetland area in Central Europe. The measurement site (53°35′30.8″N, 22°53′32.4″E) was located near the Kopytkowka river in a fen peatland, whose soils are slightly decomposed due to dehydration. The mean annual sum of CH 4 release equaled 29 ± 4 g CH 4 m −2 yr −1 in wetter year 2013 and 20 ± 1 g CH 4 m −2 yr −1 in drier year 2014. The mean annual uptake of CO 2 reached 980 ± 150 g CO 2 m −2 yr −1 and 560 ± 130 g CO 2 m −2 yr −1 in 2013 and 2014, respectively. Both fluxes show a clear annual pattern with maximum CH 4 release in June and July (at a level of 130 nmol m −2 s −1 ) and maximum CO 2 uptake in June (at a level of 4.2 μmol m −2 s −1 ). The considerable C–CO 2 uptake in comparison to C–CH 4 emissions suggests that the Biebrza river wetlands are a significant carbon sink, but the net contribution of the Biebrza mires to the climate forcing is unclear because of different metrics which can be used to specify the relative weights of CO 2 and CH 4 .

Solving the problems of regional development belongs to the category of strategic and most important of each country. The COVID-19 pandemic has become the biggest challenge for the world economic system, causing a significant impact on the reduction of key macroeconomic indicators, changes in business conditions, which has raised the issue of assessing the social and economic development of regions. The paper considers the application of composite index assessment technology for the consequences of COVID-19 on the development indicators of Ukraine's regions. The comparison was conducted according to the data of the first two quarters of 2019 and 2020. For the study, eight indicators were selected, which by content feature were divided into a subset of economic indicators and a subset of social indicators. A partial composite development index was designed for each subset. The principal components method was used to calculate the weights of the components. The results of the analysis showed that the COVID-19 pandemic had a greater impact on economic development: for each region, there is a decrease in the value of the indicator. While for a partial composite index of social development such a decrease is less noticeable. The reflection of the regions in the space of these composite indices showed that their structure remained virtually unchanged. The analysis of the common composite index of regional development, designed by the convolution of partial composite indices indicators, also showed a decrease in its values in 2020. The paper analyses the measures taken by the Government of Ukraine to neutralize the effects of the pandemic.

Siberian mires, especially the world’s largest coherent bogs of the Great Vasyugan Mire (Tomsk Region, West Siberian Plain, Russia), play an important role in the regional hydrological cycle, global carbon balance and influence flow formation of the region’s rivers. We revealed the role of natural mires in supplying water to a mire-dominated (80% of the river basin area) Siberian catchment of the Klyuch River that represents typical features of the headwater catchment of the Great Vasyugan Mire, the world’s largest mire in natural and well-preserved conditions. Our research protocol involved an analysis of the electric conductivity of peat water along selected transects of the mire, analysis of groundwater levels and river discharge and electric conductivity of the river water. We used ground-penetrating radar to determine the structure of the peat. We revealed that the examined part of the mire depends solely on the rainwater supply and that minerotrophic groundwater is not present within the area of the research. Average groundwater levels within the mire in the period 2013–2018 reached 0.193 m b.g.l. We also revealed that the natural drainage of mire water does not sustain river discharge throughout the whole year. This means the Klyuch remains an intermittent river dependent on the natural outflow of the mire’s waters, after exceeding the mire’s critical water retention volume. Total retention volume of a mire depends on the peat’s physical features and the mire’s short-term response to excessive thaw and precipitation events. An analysis of river discharge duration curves demonstrated that river discharge can be sustained by the duration reaching from 0.39 up to 0.71 in a year, in dry and wet years, respectively. We concluded that in a specific hydrogeological setup of the mire–river system, natural ombrotrophic mires cannot be considered as systems with a continuous water supply and discharge stabilization. We concluded that the Hortonian vision of infiltration and discharge is not valid in bog dominated basins. In the face of climatic changes in Siberia, we foresee a decrease in the discharge volume from the headwaters of rivers and the increase of river intermittence which may affect total outflow volume, specifically in the upper Ob and Irtysh, by reducing the contribution of surface runoff.

Near-natural lowland floodplains, which nearly disappeared in temperate climates due to the vast anthropopression, play a critically important role in shaping biodiversity in regional scales. The other important aspects of floodplains such as their role in flood mitigation for downstream reaches of rivers, catchment-scale ecosystem services, and agriculture emphasize the need for research of these ecosystems, with special focus on the flood-vegetation interactions. In our study we performed an experiment oriented at the accurate quantification of water retention capacity of the densely vegetated floodplain located in NE Poland, referring to the floodplain porosity (e). We conducted measurements of the geometry of selected types of the floodplain vegetation, with a special focus on the communities dominated by the common reed ( Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud.), the reed-manna grass ( Glyceria maxima (Hartm.) Holumb.) and dominant representatives of loosely structured sedges ( Carex acuta L.) and of tussock sedges ( Carex appropinquata Schumach.)., which allowed us to derive the volume of these species and eventually the floodplain porosity coefficients in a function of various flood depths. Estimated values of e equalled from 0.882 to 0.993. Average value of e for all vegetation communities analysed for all flood depths considered equalled 0.968. Consideration of the derived e values in the case study on the floodplain water retention capacity estimation in hypothetical conditions of a standard flood (2-year recurrence interval) resulted in the reduction of the total water storage volume of the floodplain by 0.75 mn m 3 of water. Results of our research indicated that the studies oriented at quantification of water storage within the floodplain as an asset for ecosystem services should consider floodplain porosity due to its significance in the accurate estimation of floodplain capacity.

Wetland buffer zones (WBZs) are riparian areas that form a transition between terrestrial and aquatic environments and are well-known to remove agricultural water pollutants such as nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P). This review attempts to merge and compare data on the nutrient load, nutrient loss and nutrient removal and/or retention from multiple studies of various WBZs termed as riparian mineral soil wetlands, groundwater-charged peatlands (i.e. fens) and floodplains. Two different soil types (‘organic’ and ‘mineral’), four different main water sources (‘groundwater’, ‘precipitation’, ‘surface runoff/drain discharge’, and ‘river inundation’) and three different vegetation classes (‘arboraceous’, ‘herbaceous’ and ‘aerenchymous’) were considered separately for data analysis. The studied WBZs are situated within the temperate and continental climatic regions that are commonly found in northern-central Europe, northern USA and Canada. Surprisingly, only weak differences for the nutrient removal/retention capability were found if the three WBZ types were directly compared. The results of our study reveal that for example the nitrate retention efficiency of organic soils (53 ± 28%; mean ± sd) is only slightly higher than that of mineral soils (50 ± 32%). Variance in load had a stronger influence than soil type on the N retention in WBZs. However, organic soils in fens tend to be sources of dissolved organic N and soluble reactive P, particularly when the fens have become degraded due to drainage and past agricultural usage. The detailed consideration of water sources indicated that average nitrate removal efficiencies were highest for ground water (76 ± 25%) and lowest for river water (35 ± 24%). No significant pattern for P retention emerged; however, the highest absolute removal appeared if the P source was river water. The harvesting of vegetation will minimise potential P loss from rewetted WBZs and plant biomass yield may promote circular economy value chains and provide compensation to land owners for restored land now unsuitable for conventional farming.

The purpose of the present research was to analyze the available data on river restoration projects in Europe. As the framework of our study, we conducted a structured international survey. We asked selected entities and experts from among those responsible for river restoration in European countries about the details and costs of European Union river restoration projects. We examined 119 river restoration projects that were implemented in Europe between 1989 and 2016; during the collection of data, some of the projects were still ongoing. Based upon the collected data we observed that the number of river restoration projects has been increasing since 1989, which expresses society’s growing interest in improving the quality of aquatic environments. We revealed that 56% of these European river restoration projects have been implemented by dedicated entities and stakeholders, not as part of any structured, larger-scale river restoration policy. This indicates that most European countries do not have integrated plans for river restoration. Our analysis showed that 52% of the projects analyzed have been designed and implemented without the participation of local stakeholders. It also showed that the budgets for river restoration projects did not differ significantly across various time horizons from 1989 to 2016. In our study, the average cost of restoring 1 ha of an European river was 310,000 euros (EUR). Considering these projects’ permanent assets and including their amortization, we calculated the average unit price of a river restoration’s value in terms of ecosystem meta-service to be 7757 EUR·ha−1·year−1.

The purpose of the present research was to analyze the available data on river restoration projects. As the framework of our study, we conducted a structured international survey. We asked selected entities and experts from among those responsible for river restoration in European countries about the details and costs of European Union river restoration projects. We examined 119 river restoration projects that were implemented in Europe between 1989 and 2016; some of the projects were still ongoing. We observed that the number of river restoration projects has been increasing since 1989, which expresses society’s growing interest in improving the quality of aquatic environments. We revealed that 56% of these European river restoration projects have been implemented by dedicated entities and stakeholders, not as part of any structured, larger-scale river restoration policy; this indicates that most European countries do not have integrated plans for river restoration. Our analysis showed that 52% of the projects analyzed have been designed and implemented without the participation of local stakeholders. It also showed that the budgets for river restoration projects did not differ significantly across various time horizons from 1981 to 2016. In our study, the average cost of restoring 1 ha of an average European river was 310000 EUR (or 195000 EUR if 4 outlying values are excluded). Considering these projects’ permanent assets and including their amortization, for European river systems, we calculated the average unit price of a river restoration’s value in terms of ecosystem meta-service to be 7 757 EUR · ha-1 · year-1 (4 875 EUR · ha-1 · year-1 if 4 outlying values were excluded).

Ecosystem deterioration in small lowland agricultural rivers that results from river dredging entails a significant threat to the appropriate ecohydrological conditions of these water bodies, expressed as homogenization of habitats and loss of biodiversity. Our study was aimed at a comparison of abundance and taxonomic structure of bottom-dwelling macroinvertebrates in dredged and non-dredged stretches of small lowland rivers and tributaries of the middle Narew River, namely: Czaplinianka, Turośnianka, Dąb, and Ślina. The experimental setup was (1) to collect samples of the bottom material from the river stretches that either persisted in a non-modified state (dredging was not done there in the last few years) or had been subjected to river dredging in the year of sampling; and (2) to analyze the abundance and taxonomic structure of macroinvertebrates in the collected samples. The study revealed that at the high level of statistical significance (from p = 0.025 to p = 0.001), the total abundance of riverbed macroinvertebrates in the dredged stretches of the rivers analyzed was approximately 70% lower than in non-dredged areas. We state that the dredging of small rivers in agricultural landscapes seriously affects their ecological status by negatively influencing the concentrations and species richness of benthic macroinvertebrates.

A B S T R A C T As widely recognized, bush encroachment on mire meadows induces species and habitat biodiversity. However, it is unclear if expansion of either a coherent, continuous forest or randomly distributed groups of trees, so-called tree isles, in formerly open landscapes of mire meadows influences differently the water balance of the system due to changing vegetation structure, landscape, and thus evapotranspiration. In this paper we use a quasi-3D unsaturated–saturated groundwater flow model to reveal the feedback between the actual evapotranspiration and diurnal phreatic groundwater level dynamics. A schematized numerical experiment was setup to elucidate the ecohydrological functioning of mire meadows in the Biebrza Valley (NE Poland), which have been influenced by bush encroachment due to abandonment of mowing. Model calibration and validation was based on field collected data on groundwater dynamics showing the feedback between the evapotranspiration and diurnal groundwater level fluctuations. The model was applied for different landscape compositions of encroachments as well as different stages of shrubby vegetation expansion in a formerly open meadow. It is concluded that for coupled unsaturated– saturated flow models of mires, analysis of diurnal groundwater level fluctuations combined with evapotranspiration quantification is an efficient yet simple method for model calibration and validation. Results of the modelling experiment indicated that the tree-isle-type of bush encroachment entails higher losses of water from the system due to evapotranspiration than coherent forest expansion. For a hypothetical summer drought and an encroachment cover of 50% the total evapotranspiration is shown to be 13% higher for the tree-isle-type encroachment than for expansion of a coherent forest. Consequently, it is concluded that conservation of mires requires continuous control of encroachment not only because of potential loss of biodiversity, but more importantly to limit significant loss of water due to increased evapotranspiration.

Fine root biomass of forest trees is a recognised indicator of environmental changes in the conditions of global climate change. The present study was carried out in six old-growth beech forests (112-140 years) located in different climatic conditions on the range border of Fagus sylvatica L. in Poland. The root biomass was investigated by soil coring method in the upper soil layers (0-5 cm, 5-15 cm and total layer 0-15 cm). The significantly greater total root biomass was found in the beech stands, which characterised by higher average precipitation and lower average annual temperatures in the period 2000-2005. The share of roots of diameter > 5 mm increased with increasing depth of top soils. Biomass of fine roots (diameter ≤ 2 mm) decreased with increasing depth of upper soil layers. The average biomass of fine roots ranged from 175.36 to 418.16 g m-2 in the soil layer 0-15 cm. The significant differences of fine root biomass were found between studied stands in the soil layers 0-5 cm and 0-15 cm. Also, it was found significant positive correlation between fine root biomass in the soil layer 0-15 cm and precipitation during the growing season in 2006. Precipitation in the study period was connected with very high rainfall in August 2006, repeatedly exceeding the long-term monthly levels. Regional climatic conditions, in that extreme weather events in growing seasons can significantly to affect changes of fine root biomass of forest trees, consequently, changes of relationships between the growth of above- and below-ground of the old-growth forest stands.

The integration of water management goals in protected wetland areas agriculturally managed in an intensive manner recalls the comparison of apples (ecological values) and oranges (economic dimension of agriculture). Sustainable wetland management frequently fails if environmental features are not referred to as ecosystem services and quantified in economic terms. In our hydrological-economical study on floodplain wetlands located in the Lower Basin of the Biebrza Valley, we attempt to quantify the monetary value of water storage in the floodplain during flood phenomena as an important ecosystem service. The unit monetary value of water storage in the catchment of Biebrza Valley was assessed on the basis of small artificial water reservoirs, constructed in recent years and located in the area of research, and reached 0.53 EUR·m−3·year−1. In a GIS-based study on hydrological floodplain processes in the years 1995–2011, we assessed the average annual volume of active water storage in the floodplain which reached 10.36 M m3 year−1, giving a monetary value of EUR 5.49 million per annum. We propose that the methodology presented in our analysis could be applied as water storage subsidies in valuable floodplains, to prevent their deterioration originating from agriculture intensification.

In our study, we analyzed the combined standard uncertainty of water table slope assessment done using differential global positioning system (DGPS)-based measurements of water table elevation and distances between measurement locations. We compared and discussed uncertainties in water table slope assessments done in various hypothetical environments of lowland floodplains (water table slopes typically ranged from 1.25 · 10−4 to 1 · 10−3). Our analyses referred to elevation measurements done with the static GPS and DGPS real-time kinematic (RTK) approaches, which are currently among the most frequently used elevation measurement techniques worldwide. Calculations of the combined standard uncertainty of water table slope allowed us to conclude that the DGPS-RTK approach used in water table slope assessment can result in assessment errors as high as 50 % at short (

An appropriate hydrological regime within a wetland is essential to maintain its goods and services. This regime is related to the source of the water, which differs for particular kinds of wetlands. This paper presents an overview of the ecosystem services of European wetlands, based on a representative sample of 102 protected wetlands larger than 5000 ha, and the implications of hydrological alterations caused by future climate and socio-economic changes. Six major ecosystem services of wetlands were assessed namely: biodiversity in terms of plants and animals, biomass production, nutrient removal, carbon storage and fish production. Data showed that, on average, four services were present in each wetland. The impact of climate change, water management and land-use change was examined under different future scenarios. Major potential changes in hydrological regime (i.e. precipitation, groundwater recharge and river flow) were quantified up to the 2050s using simulated runoff and river flow data...

In the future, climate change may severely alter flood patterns over large regional scales. Consequently, besides other anthropogenic factors, climate change represents a potential threat to river ecosystems. The aim of this study is to evaluate the effect of climate change on floodplain inundation for important floodplain wetlands in Europe and to place these results in an ecological context. This work is performed within the Water Scenarios for Europe and Neighbouring States (SCENES) project considering three different climate change projections for the 2050s. The global scale hydrological model WaterGAP is applied to simulate current and future river discharges that are then used to: (i) estimate bankfull flow conditions, (ii) determine three different inundation parameters, and (iii) evaluate the hydrological consequences and their relation to ecology. Results of this study indicate that in snow-affected catchments (e.g. in Central and Eastern Europe) inundation may appear earlier in the year. Duration and volume of inundation are expected to decrease. This will lead to a reduction in habitat for fish, vertebrates, water birds and floodplain-specific vegetation causing a loss in biodiversity, floodplain productivity and fish production. Contradictory results occur in Spain, France, Southern England and the Benelux countries. This reflects the uncertainties of current climate modelling for specific seasons.

Structure of the floodplain, especially its topography and vegetation, influences the overland flow and dynamics of floods which are key factors shaping ecosystems in surface water-fed wetlands. Therefore elaboration of the digital terrain model (DTM) of a high spatial accu racy is crucial in hydrodynamic flow m odelling in river valleys. In this study the research was conducted in the unique Central European complex of fens and marshes - the Lower Biebrza river valley. The area is represented mainly by peat ecosystems which according to EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) are called “water -dependent ecosystems”. Development of accurate DT M in these areas which are overgrown by dense wetland vegetation consisting of alder forest, willow shrubs, reed, sedges and grass is very difficult, therefore to represent terrain in high accuracy the airborne laser sc anning data (ALS) with scan ning density of 4 points/m 2 was used and the correction of the “vegetation effect” on DTM was ex ecuted. This correction was performed utilizing remotely sensed images, topographical survey using the Real Time Kinematic positioning and vegetation height measurements. In order to classify different types of vegetation within research area the object based image analysis (OBIA) was used. OBIA allowed partitioning remotely sensed imagery into meaningful image-objects, and assessing their characteristics through spatial and spectral scale. The final maps of vegetation patches that include attributes of vegetation height and vegetation spectral properties, utilized both the laser scanni ng data and the vegetation indices developed on the basis of airborne and satellite imagery. This data was used in process of segmentation, attribution and classification. Several different vegetation indices were tested to distinguish different types of vegetation in wetland area. The OBIA classification allowed correction of the “vegetation effect” on DTM. The final di gital terrain model was compared and examined within distinguished land cover classes (formed mainly by natural vegetation of the river valley) with archival height models developed through interpolation of ground points measured with GPS RTK and also with elevation models from the ASTER-GDEM and SRTM programs. The resear ch presented in this paper allowed improving quality of hydrodynamic modelling in the surface water-fed wetlands protected within Biebrza Na tional Park. Additionally, the comparison with other digital terrain models allowed to dem onstrate the importance of accurate topography products in such modelling. The ALS data also significantly improved the accuracy and actuality of the river Biebrza course, its tributaries and location of numerous oxbows typical in this part of the river valley in comparison to previously available data. This type of data also helped to refine the river valle y cross-sections, designate river banks and to develop the slope map of the research area. Keywords: Airborne Laser Scanning (ALS), Object Based Image Analysis (OBIA), Digital Terrain Model (DTM), Biebrza, hydrology

In this chapter the authors deal with the implementation of Water Framework Directive in the catchment of the Biebrza River (north-east Poland) that covers 7,120 km2. Special attention was paid to the context of conservation of riverine and wetland ecosystems facing pressures driven by the climatic change. Measures foreseen by the National Water-Environment Programme for the catchment of Biebrza are analysed in order to reveal whether the actions planned, expressing the implementation of Water Framework Directive, anticipate potential pressures originating from the observed and defined, climate-related pressures such as increasing frequency of summer flooding, ongoing decrease in summer sums of precipitation and increasing frequencies of extremely high summer rainfalls. The DPSIR feedback loops presenting selected relations between the climate-related pressures and potential negative responses of geoecosystems of the Biebrza catchment are described in order to verify whether the measures implemented aimed at conservation and improvement of the state of water bodies and water-dependent ecosystems are capable for assuring their good status. Basing upon the observations and facts analysed, the authors derive lessons learnt from the process of Water Framework Directive implementation, showing that the improvement of allocation of funds to the water management actions is needed in order to assure good ecological status of aquatic and wetland ecosystems, concerning qualitative and quantitative elements of the water-related environments, facing direct and indirect climate-related pressures.

A multi-model-based study was performed in order to unravel valuable fen meadow habitats' possible exposure to eutrophication, which is expected to occur as a result of the re-saturation of degraded peat soils. The framework was tested in a 3000-ha fen-drain system to be restored in the Middle Biebrza Basin (northeast Poland), where the datasets and related models were used to delineate prospective eutrophication hotspots and nutrient transport. A 1-d hydrodynamic model and a 3-d groundwater flow model were applied to constitute the hydrological response of the fen-drain system to the prospective construction and function of weirs and spillways, which are expected to induce the increase of groundwater levels in degraded fens. A groundwater particle-tracking postprocessor was applied to delineate flow pathways and discharge zones and to determine water residence time in modelled layers. Soil and habitat maps, a high-resolution digital elevation model and historic groundwater level observations were applied to the model performance, calibration and spatial analysis of prospective eutrophication hotspots where increased eutrophication of groundwater can be expected due to the re-saturation of degraded peat soils. The study revealed that the large-scale fen rewetting that occurred as a result of surface water bodies' damming can potentially result in groundwater-driven nutrient dispersion along with an enhanced nutrient transport from a fen to the adjacent water bodies. Spatial analyses showed that, although the rewetting-driven eutrophication of Molinia fen meadows located in the study area is not likely, one can expect increased nutrient discharges to adjacent drains, inducing the contamination of ox-bow lakes located along the rivers. We propose the presented methodology to be applied ex-ante to fen-rewetting projects in strategic environmental assessments of restoration projects in order to manage the potentially negative environmental consequences of fen and river eutrophication with special regard to nutrient hotspots that are likely to occur within the rewetted fens.

Beaver ponds remain a challenge for forest management in those countries where expansion of beaver (Castor fiber) is observed. Despite undoubted economic losses generated in forests by beaver, their influence on hydrology of forest streams especially in terms of increasing channel retention (amount of water stored in the river channel), is considered a positive aspect of their activity. In our study, we compared water storage capacities of a lowland forest stream settled by beaver in order to unravel the possible temporal variability of beaver’s influence on channel retention. We compared distribution, total damming height, volumes and areas of beaver ponds in the valley of Krzemianka (Northeast Poland) in the years 2006 (when a high construction activity of beaver was observed) and in 2013 (when the activity of beaver decreased significantly). The study revealed a significant decrease of channel retention of beaver ponds from over 15,000 m3 in 2006 to 7000 m3 in 2013. The total damming height of the cascade of beaver ponds decreased from 6.6 to 5.6 m. Abandoned beaver ponds that transferred into wetlands, where lost channel retention was replaced by soil and groundwater retention, were more constant over time and less vulnerable to the external disturbance means of water storage than channel retention. We concluded that abandoned beaver ponds played an active role in increasing channel retention of the river analyzed for approximately 5 years. We also concluded that if the construction activity of beaver was used as a tool (ecosystem service) in increasing channel retention of the river valley, the permanent presence of beaver in the riparian zone of forest streams should have been assured.

In this chapter we analyse observed and prospective climate changes in the Biebrza Valley (NE Poland), in order to describe potential challenges for the adaptive management of valuable ecosystems and habitats, with consideration of stakeholder pressures. Historical, temporal changes in precipitation and dynamics of flooding within the riparian wetlands are preliminarily analysed in order to derive possible trends of changes. Prospective changes in air temperature and precipitation for the time horizon 2070–2100 derived from ten different GCM-RCM ensembles are referred to values measured in the Biebrza Valley in 2000–2011, in order to obtain prospective absolute dimensions of climate change which enforce challenges for ecosystem adaptation and stakeholder reaction. The research indicated that the climate change in the Biebrza Valley is likely to entail the ongoing decrease in summer sums of precipitation, increased frequency of extreme rainfall events in the summer and the increase of the average monthly air temperature. We conclude that in certain cases the same climate-related impacts are either negative or positive in both socio-economic and environmental dimensions. Therefore, an integrated adaptation approach in wetland management is needed in order to buffer and mitigate the possible direct and indirect negative consequences of climate change for both habitats and stakeholders.

Indicators for tracking ecological effects of climate change in habitats provide important management and monitoring tools for nature conservation service in protected areas. One of the objectives of the HABIT-CHANGE project was to propose operational ecological indicators of climate-induced changes in habitats based on ecosystem relevance, reliability and ease of use for land managers. Initially established lists of indicators covered more than 100 indicative parameters including a group of those assigned to climatic, hydrological and land use changes as well as those purported for specific ecosystems such as wetlands, meadows, forests and mountains. Environmental changes at larger scales, such as landscapes and total protected areas, can be captured by indices built on data from remote sensing, whereas for detecting and monitoring habitat changes at local level, further detailed procedures must be carried out with the use of more complex methods and measurements of indicative parameters. This work focuses on local level habitat quality indication for the assessment of climate change-induced habitat changes and monitoring of future trends. With the aid of criteria evaluating indicator integrity, relevance to climate change and suitability for management decision support, several indicators were selected for the purpose of indicating climate change effects on habitats within the investigation areas. It was found that for wetland ecosystems the indicators built on metrics such as soil organic matter (SOM) decomposition, soil CO2 emission, soil carbon content (SCC), changes in the content of soil nitrogen and its mineral form, concentration and composition of soil solutions as well as in the presence and numbers of nitrophytes are strongly assigned to climate change. Collectively, the above mentioned indicators represent a habitat level assessment which may be used for integrated bioindication and monitoring of climate change effects, e.g. in wetland areas. To render it available to the site managers, the complex bioindicatory information resulting from habitat monitoring shall be processed and visualised in the form of maps and models.

Airborne laser scanning survey data were conducted with a scanning density of 4 points/m2 to accurately map the surface of a unique central European complex of wetlands: the lower Biebrza River valley (Poland). A method to correct a degrading effect of vegetation (so-called “vegetation effect”) on digital terrain models (DTMs) was applied utilizing remotely sensed images, real-time kinematic global positioning system elevation measurements, topographical surveys, and vegetation height measurements. Geographic object-based image analysis (GEOBIA) was performed to map vegetation within the study area that was used as categories from which vegetation height information was derived for the DTM correction. The final DTM was compared with a model obtained, where additional correction of the “vegetation effect” was neglected. A comparison between corrected and uncorrected DTMs demonstrated the importance of accurate topography through a simple presentation of the discrepancies arising in features of the flood using various DTM products. An overall map classification accuracy of 80% was attained with the use of GEOBIA. Correction factors developed for various types of the vegetation reached values from 0.08 up to 0.92 m and were dependent on the vegetation type.

A Decision Support System (DSS) was developed in order to quantify environmental changes that occurred during the last two centuries leading to degradation of the wetland ecosystems of the Biebrza National Park. The main idea was bringing together scientific knowledge and practical experience under one framework and subsequently creating and facilitating communication between a network of scientists, nature managers and local stakeholders. As a result, an analysis tool was created, which is used for the description of relations between land use, management activities, surfaceand groundwater status, conservation and restoration measures and the current state of wetland ecosystems. The system was built in 20012004 in the framework of a PIN MATRA project by seven Dutch and Polish institutions, then improved in the period 2007-2010 within the cooperation of six Polish and Norwegian institutions with an EEA Grant. The previous stages of the DSS development have been described in several ways (Chormanski & Wassen, 2005; Kardel et al, 2009; Chormanski et al, 2009a).