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The neurovascular unit (NVU) consists of cells intrinsic to the vessel wall, the endothelial cells and pericytes, and astrocyte endfeet that surround the vessel but are separated from it by basement membrane. Endothelial cells are primarily responsible for creating and maintaining blood-brain-barrier (BBB) tightness, but astrocytes contribute to the barrier through paracrine signaling to the endothelial cells and by forming the glia limitans. Gap junctions (GJs) between astrocyte endfeet are composed of connexin 43 (Cx43) and Cx30, which form plaques between cells. GJ plaques formed of Cx43 do not diffuse laterally in the plasma membrane and thus potentially provide stable organizational features to the endfoot domain, whereas GJ plaques formed of other connexins and of Cx43 lacking a large portion of its cytoplasmic carboxyl terminus are quite mobile. In order to examine the organizational features that immobile GJs impose on the endfoot, we have used super-resolution confocal microscopy to map number and sizes of GJ plaques and aquaporin (AQP)-4 channel clusters in the perivascular endfeet of mice in which astrocyte GJs (Cx30, Cx43) were deleted or the carboxyl terminus of Cx43 was truncated. To determine if blood-brain-barrier integrity was compromised in these transgenic mice, we conducted perfusion studies under elevated hydrostatic pressure using horseradish peroxide as a molecular probe enabling detection of micro-hemorrhages in brain sections. These studies revealed that microhemorrhages were more numerous in mice lacking Cx43 or its carboxyl terminus. In perivascular domains of cerebral vessels, we found that density of Cx43 GJs was higher in the truncation mutant, while GJ size was smaller. Density of perivascular particles formed by AQP4 and its extended isoform AQP4ex was inversely related to the presence of full length Cx43, whereas the ratio of sizes of the particles of the AQP4ex isoform to total AQP4 was directly related to the presence of full length Cx43. Confocal analysis showed that Cx43 and Cx30 were substantially colocalized in astrocyte domains near vasculature of truncation mutant mice. These results showing altered distribution of some astrocyte nexus components (AQP4 and Cx30) in Cx43 null mice and in a truncation mutant, together with leakier cerebral vasculature, support the hypothesis that localization and mobility of gap junction proteins and their binding partners influences organization of astrocyte endfeet which in turn impacts BBB integrity of the NVU.

ATP- and adenosine-mediated signaling are prominent types of glia–glia and glia–neuron interaction, with an imbalance of ATP/adenosine ratio leading to altered states of excitability, as seen in epileptic seizures. Pannexin1 (Panx1), a member of the gap junction family, is an ATP release channel that is expressed in astrocytes and neurons. Previous studies provided evidence supporting a role for purinergic-mediated signaling via Panx1 channels in seizures; using mice with global deletion of Panx1, it was shown that these channels contribute in maintenance of seizures by releasing ATP. However, nothing is known about the extent to which astrocyte and neuronal Panx1 might differently contribute to seizures. We here show that targeted deletion of Panx1 in astrocytes or neurons has opposing effects on acute seizures induced by kainic acid. The absence of Panx1 in astrocytes potentiates while the absence of Panx1 in neurons attenuates seizure manifestation. Immunohistochemical analysis performed in brains of these mice, revealed that adenosine kinase (ADK), an enzyme that regulates extracellular levels of adenosine, was increased only in seized GFAP-Cre:Panx1f/f mice. Pretreating mice with the ADK inhibitor, idotubercidin, improved seizure outcome and prevented the increase in ADK immunoreactivity. Together, these data suggest that the worsening of seizures seen in mice lacking astrocyte Panx1 is likely related to low levels of extracellular adenosine due to the increased ADK levels in astrocytes. Our study not only reveals an unexpected link between Panx1 channels and ADK but also highlights the important role played by astrocyte Panx1 channels in controlling neuronal activity.

The ultrastructure of the radial neuromuscular system of the trachymedusa Liriope tetraphylla was examined to determine the morphological substrate underlying crumpling behavior--the folding of the margin into the subumbrellar cavity by radial muscle contraction. These contractions are produced by the four smooth muscle bands that run the length of the peduncle and extend over the subumbrellar surface to the margin, along the radii. Axons are present in the radial system and attain appreciable density at the base of insertion of the peduncle; contact between this radial nerve net and the inner nerve ring may occur at the margin. Gap junctions were not encountered within the ectodermal radial system. These various observations are discussed with respect to the control of crumpling in this and other species of hydromedusae.

Adrenergic receptors in astrocytes have both direct and indirect impact on intercellular communication in the nervous system. Direct mechanisms include activation of second messenger pathways that produce posttranslational modifications of the gap junction proteins [connexins (Cxs)] or activate transcription factors or other processes such as miRNAs that dictate or modify Cx gene expression or protein translation. These direct effects change the strength of intercellular communication through modifying open probability of the gap junction channels, altering balance between delivery to the membrane and degradation or through regulation of transcript abundance. Indirect actions with potentially profound implications for glial and neuronal network activity include alterations in the intracellular concentration of metabolites, energy-supplying molecules and second messengers, thereby changing the diffusional driving force responsible for intercellular spread. Although direct effects target the gap junction channels themselves to affect gating, assembly, and turnover, indirect action to liberate intracellular molecules may also produce rapid dynamic changes in spread of these factors throughout the coupled networks.

Pannexins (Panx1, 2, and 3) comprise a group of proteins expressed in vertebrates that share weak yet significant sequence homology with the invertebrate gap junction proteins, the innexins. In contrast to the other vertebrate gap junction protein family (connexin), pannexins do not form intercellular channels, but at least Panx1 forms nonjunctional plasma membrane channels. Panx1 is ubiquitously expressed and has been shown to form large conductance (500 pS) channels that are voltage dependent, mechanosensitive, and permeable to relatively large molecules such as ATP. Pharmacological and knockdown approaches have indicated that Panx1 is the molecular substrate for the so-called "hemichannel" originally attributed to connexin43 and that Panx1 is the pore-forming unit of the P2X(7) receptor. Here, we describe, for the first time, conductance and permeability properties of Panx1-null astrocytes. The electrophysiological and fluorescence imaging analyses performed on these cells fully support our previous pharmacological and Panx1 knockdown studies that showed profoundly lower dye uptake and ATP release than wild-type untreated astrocytes. As a consequence of decreased ATP paracrine signaling, intercellular calcium wave spread is altered in Panx1-null astrocytes. Moreover, we found that in astrocytes as in Panx1-expressing oocytes, elevated extracellular K(+) activates Panx1 channels independently of membrane potential. Thus, on the basis of our present findings and our previous report, we propose that Panx1 channels serve as K(+) sensors for changes in the extracellular milieu such as those occurring under pathological conditions.

Astrocytes utilize two major pathways to achieve long distance intercellular communication. One pathway involves direct gap junction mediated signal transmission and the other consists of release of ATP through pannexin channels and excitation of purinergic receptors on nearby cells. Elevated extracellular potassium to levels occurring around hyperactive neurons affects both gap junction and pannexin1 channels. The action on Cx43 gap junctions is to increase intercellular coupling for a period that long outlasts the stimulus. This long term increase in coupling, termed "LINC", is mediated through calcium and calmodulin dependent activation of calmodulin dependent kinase (CaMK). Pannexin1 can be activated by elevations in extracellular potassium through a mechanism that is quite different. In this case, potassium shifts activation potentials to more physiological range, thereby allowing channel opening at resting or slightly depolarized potentials. Enhanced activity of both these channel types by elevations in extracellular potassium of the magnitude occurring during periods of high neuronal activity likely has profound effects on intercellular signaling among astrocytes in the nervous system.

The advent of multicellular organisms, some 800 million years ago, necessitated the development of mechanisms for cell-to-cell synchronization and for the spread of signals across increasingly large cell populations [168, 185]. Many structures and mechanisms have evolved to achieve such functions [4, 15]. Among these mechanisms, one which is prominent in both the invertebrate and the vertebrate world, across the entire phylogenetic scale, involves the transmembrane flux of large cytosolic and extracellular molecules [4, 15, 65, 66, 69–71, 121, 128, 129, 147, 154, 163]. These fluxes, in turn, are dependent on the formation of specific channels that in all animal classes are made by tetra-span integral membrane proteins [65, 66, 69–71, 121, 128, 129, 147, 154, 163] (Fig. 1). Fig. 1 Innexins, pannexins, and connexins form different types of gap junctional and “hemi-channels.” Invertebrates express many different innexins (purple; 25 isoforms in C. elegans) that may form either gap junction channels for cell-to-cell ... Keywords: Gap junctions, Connexons, Pannexons, Innexons, Membrane channels, Ca2+, ATP, Glutamate Three junctional protein families form membrane channels permeable to large molecules Early electrophysiological and electron microscopy studies converged in the realization that gap junctions, the membrane domains that concentrate intramembrane particles at sites of close membrane apposition, were the physical substrate of cell-to-cell communication in both invertebrate [59] and vertebrate tissues [139] (Fig. 1). The finding that similar drugs (the long-chain alcohols heptanol and octanol) and conditions (intracellular acidification) inhibited intercellular communication in both invertebrate and vertebrate systems [58, 85] was taken as further support that all gap junctions had a similar structure and function. Still, the different size of intramembrane particles, their different partition into the P- and the E-fracture faces of the cell membrane, and the different width of the gap space delineated by the two interacting membranes, suggested that the proteins making vertebrate gap junctions were different from those making the invertebrate structures [96]. These differences have functional consequences, as most elegantly demonstrated by co-culturing cell lines from different animal species. In these experiments, heterotypic coupling was shown between insect cells, as well as between different types of vertebrate cells, whereas virtually no coupling was observed between cells of phylogenetically distant species [48]. There is no longer any question that vertebrate gap junction channels are made by various combinations of different connexin proteins [66, 69–71]. The 20–21 isoforms of this family in rodents and man differ in size, but share a similar membrane topography. Thus, all connexins feature four transmembrane domains connected by two extracellular loops, each comprising three highly conserved Cys residues, a cytoplasmic loop, and both N and C termini in the cytosol (Fig. 2). The difference in size of the different connexin isoforms is essentially due to a different length of the cytoplasmic loop and/or the C terminus [39, 64, 65, 69–71, 109]. Current nomenclature (Table 1) designates connexin proteins as nCxZ, where n is the species (e.g., h, m, r for human, mouse, rat, respectively), and Z is the predicted molecular weight, in kDa. The genes encoding connexin proteins are named according to subgroups, in the order of discovery (e.g., Gjb1 encodes Cx32, Gjb2 encodes Cx26, Gja1 encodes Cx43, etc). Fig. 2 Membrane topography of the proteins forming gap junctions and “hemi-channels.” All invertebrate innexins, vertebrate ortholog pannexins, and nonhomologous vertebrate connexins feature four transmembrane domains connected by two extracellular ... Table 1 The family of human connexins Attempts to identify the proteins making invertebrate gap junctions initially revealed the proteins Ogre, Passover, Uncoordinated, and Shaking B in Drosophila and Caenorhabditis (hence the original OPUS acronym to name these proteins) with no primary sequence homology to connexins [128, 129, 195]. Since that time, more than 25 other junctional proteins revealing significant similarities have been identified in C. elegans, and it is clear that many other forms are expressed in other invertebrate species [75, 128, 129, 195] (Table 2). Collectively, these proteins have been named innexins to stress their invertebrate distribution and their role, analogous to that of connexins, in the formation of gap junctions (Fig. 1). Strikingly, innexins also share with connexins a similar structure and membrane topography (Fig. 2), even though the two sets of proteins have no homology in their primary amino acid sequence [75, 128, 129, 195]. Notably, connexins display three conserved Cys within each of the two extracellular loops, whereas innexins only carry two such residues. Thus, it is curious in retrospect that hydra development was reported to be blocked by an antibody prepared against Cx32 [53], that other antibodies have detected connexin-like proteins in anemone [112] and other marine invertebrates [5], and that junctional proteins isolated from hepatopancreas of crayfish and lobster were reported to have a sequence similar to that of rat liver connexins [51]. Table 2 A present view of the growing family of invertebrate innexins Sequencing of mammalian genomes has revealed a third family comprising only three genes that code for proteins with a primary sequence showing about 20% similarity to that of innexins [121, 154, 195]. On this basis, these proteins were thought to represent vertebrate homologs of the innexins, and were termed pannexins (Table 3) to encompass both invertebrate and vertebrate members [121, 154]. Like connexins and innexins, all three pannexins display N- and C-terminal domains within the cytoplasm, large extracellular and cytoplasmic loop domains, and four membrane spanning segments (Fig. 2). Like innexins but in contrast to connexins, pannexins contain two Cys residues in each extracellular loop [121, 154]. Furthermore, and in marked contrast with both innexins and connexins, pannexins display consensus sequences for glycosylation [13, 14, 125] (Fig. 2). The distribution of Pnx1 (Pnx1), the most studied form, is widespread and, in most types of cells and tissues, largely overlaps with that of connexins [17, 8]. While at least some phenotypes resulting from loss of specific connexin species are not compensated by pannexin changes [136, 146], suggesting a different function of the two protein families, in other cases, the effects of Pnx1 transfection mimicked that of Cx43, implicating a comparable/overlapping role of these two proteins [93]. Table 3 The family of human pannexins Connexins and innexins form cell-to-cell channels at gap junctional regions of the cell membrane Expression and deletion studies in a variety of systems have established that connexin hexamers, termed connexons, concentrate at gap junction domains of the cell membrane, where the intercellular space is reduced to a gap 2–3 nm wide. At these sites, the connexons of one cell align with, and strongly bind to the connexons of an adjacent cell, establishing a continuous intercellular hydrophilic pathway (Fig. 1) for the cell-to-cell exchange of multiple types of cytosolic molecules [64, 65, 69–71, 155]. The functional importance of this electrical and metabolic coupling is shown by a variety of striking and tissue-specific phenotypes that can be experimentally induced after overexpression or knock-out of individual connexin isoforms, as well as after the knock-in replacement of one isoform by another [92, 192]. It is further stressed by the identification of a number of diseases that are undoubtedly linked to connexin mutations [43, 57, 90, 94, 127, 143]. A variety of other diseases are thought to be due to altered amounts and/or function of these gap junction proteins [21, 108, 153]. Similarly, innexins oligomerize to form innexons that cluster at gap junctions of invertebrate cells (Fig. 1). Functional expression studies in paired Xenopus oocytes demonstrated that several, even though not all innexins also formed intercellular channels [8, 95, 166], and that at least some innexin mutations give rise to phenotypes expected for lack of gap junction-mediated intercellular communication [10, 25, 27, 37, 179]. In fact, it was on the basis of such dysfunctional phenotypes that the OPUS gene family was first identified. In contrast, and in spite of an initial report [18], pannexons appear unable to form sizable amounts of cell-to-cell channels under most conditions [76, 146, 147, 163] (Fig. 1). This lack of formation of functional gap junctions is likely due to the glycosylation of the extracellular loops of pannexins [13, 14, 125], which, as mentioned above, is not observed for either connexins or innexins. Still, forced expression of pannexins in paired Xenopus oocytes increased the conductance of the junctional cell membrane to current carrying ions in a way that can only be accounted for by the formation of pannexin cell-to-cell channels [13].

Gap junctions and purinergic P2 receptors (P2Rs) can be regarded as belonging to a common functional unit, given that they are involved in the transmission of calcium signals between cells. We have previously shown that deletion of the Gja1 gene alters expression levels of numerous genes encoding proteins with diverse functions, including purinergic receptors (P2Rs), and have found that genes synergistically or antagonistically expressed in wild-type tissues are more prone to be similarly or oppositely regulated in Cx43-nulls. We have now explored the use of coordination analysis of gene expression as a strategy to identify interlinked genes encoding functionally related proteins and pull-downs to evaluate their interlinkage. Our findings indicate that, in brain and in cultured astrocytes, several of these coexpressed genes encode proteins that are components of P2R signal-transduction pathways and/or directly interact with these receptors, including the gap junction protein connexin43 (Cx43) and Cx45 as well as pannexins. It is proposed that coordination analysis of gene expression may provide a novel unbiased strategy for the identification of proteins belonging to supramolecular complexes.

Several lines of evidence indicate that the elaborated calcium signals and the occurrence of calcium waves in astrocytes provide these cells with a specific form of excitability. The identification of the cellular and molecular steps involved in the triggering and transmission of Ca(2+) waves between astrocytes resulted in the identification of two pathways mediating this form of intercellular communication. One of them involves the direct communication between the cytosols of two adjoining cells through gap junction channels, while the other depends upon the release of "gliotransmitters" that activates membrane receptors on neighboring cells. In this review we summarize evidence in favor of these two mechanisms of Ca(2+) wave transmission and we discuss that they may not be mutually exclusive, but are likely to work in conjunction to coordinate the activity of a group of cells. To address a key question regarding the functional consequences following the passage of a Ca(2+) wave, we list, in this review, some of the potential intracellular targets of these Ca(2+) transients in astrocytes, and discuss the functional consequences of the activation of these targets for the interactions that astrocytes maintain with themselves and with other cellular partners, including those at the glial/vasculature interface and at perisynaptic sites where astrocytic processes tightly interact with neurons.

Both multiple sclerosis (MS) and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), its animal model, involve inflammatory attack on central nervous system (CNS) white matter, leading to demyelination and axonal damage. Changes in astrocytic morphology and function are also prominent features of MS and EAE. Resting astrocytes form a network that is interconnected through gap junctions, composed mainly of connexin43 (Cx43) protein. Although astrocytic gap junctional connectivity is known to be altered in many CNS pathologies, little is known about Cx43 expression in inflammatory demyelinating disease. Therefore, we evaluated the expression of Cx43 in spinal cords of EAE mice compared with healthy controls. Lumbar ventral white matter areas were heavily infiltrated with CD11beta-immunoreactive monocytes, and within these infiltrated regions loss of Cx43 immunoreactivity was evident. These regions also showed axonal dystrophy, demonstrated by the abnormally dephosphorylated heavy-chain neurofilament proteins. Astrocytes in these Cx43-depleted lesions were strongly glial fibrillary acidic protein reactive. Significant loss (38%) of Cx43 protein in EAE mouse at the lumbar portion of spinal cords was confirmed by Western blot analysis. Decreased Cx43 transcript level was also observed on cDNA microarray analysis. In addition to changes in Cx43 expression, numerous other genes were altered, including those encoding adhesion and extracellular matrix proteins. Our data support the notion that, in addition to damage of myelinating glia, altered astrocyte connectivity is a prominent feature of inflammatory demyelination.

Microglia, the tissue macrophages of the central nervous system (CNS), intimately interact with neurons physically and through soluble factors that can affect microglial activation state and neuronal survival and physiology. We report here a new mechanism of interaction between these cells, provided by the formation of gap junctions composed of connexin (Cx) 36. Among eight Cxs tested, expression of Cx36 mRNA and protein was found in microglial cultures prepared from human and mouse, and Cx45 mRNA was found in mouse microglial cultures. Electrophysiological measurements found coupling between one-third of human or mouse microglial pairs that averaged below 30 pico-Siemens and displayed electrical properties consistent with Cx36 gap junctions. Importantly, similar frequency of low-strength electrical coupling was also obtained between microglia and neurons in cocultures prepared from neocortical or hippocampal rodent tissue. Lucifer yellow dye coupling between neurons and microglia was observed in 4% of pairs tested, consistent with the low strength and incidence of electrical coupling. Cx36 expression level and/or the degree of coupling between microglia did not significantly change in the presence of activating agents, including lipopolysaccharide, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, interferon-gamma, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha, except for some reduction of Cx36 protein when exposed to the latter two agents. Our findings that intercellular coupling occurs between neuronal and microglial populations through Cx36 gap junctions have potentially important implications for normal neural physiology and microglial responses in neuronopathology in the mammalian CNS.

Connexin43 (Cx43) is the principal gap junction protein between astrocytes in the neonatal brain and also interconnects neural precursor cells during CNS development. In an attempt to understand global effects of expression of the Cx43 gap junction gene on development and function of the nervous system, we have compared gene expression patterns in cultured astrocytes and brains from wildtype mice with those in which Cx43 is deleted as well as in spinal cords of experimental autoimmune encepahlomyelitis (EAE) mice. One surprising result obtained from high densitity mouse cDNA studies was the large number of genes that were statistically altered in mice with decreased expression of Cx43. These altered genes encode proteins with a wide range of functions within cells, and thus deletion of normal gap junction expression appears to result in globally altered glial functions in addition to disruption of intercellular communication. Here we discuss those results in the context of the strategies and data analysis paradigms that we are using in such studies.

Astrocytes express gap junction proteins and multiple types of P2Y receptors (P2YRs) that contribute to the propagation of intercellular Ca(2+) waves (ICW). To gain access to the role played by gap junctional communication in ICW propagation generated by P2YR activation, we selectively expressed P2Y(1,2,4)R subtypes and Cx43 in the human 1321N1 astrocytoma cell line, which lacks endogenous P2 receptors. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching revealed that 1321N1 cells are poorly dye-coupled and do not propagate ICW. Forced expression of Cx43 in 1321N1 cells (which did not show functional hemichannels) increased dye coupling and allowed short-range ICW transmission that was mainly mediated by intercellular diffusion of Ca(2+) generated in the stimulated cells. Astrocytoma clones expressing each of the P2YR subtypes were also able to propagate ICWs that were likely dependent on IP(3) generation. These waves exhibited properties particular to each P2YR subtype. Co-expression of eGFP-hCx43 and P2Y(1)R modified the properties of P2Y(1)R-generated ICW to those characteristics of P2Y(2)R. Increased coupling in P2Y(4)R clones induced by expression of eGFP-hCx43 abolished the ICWs observed in uncoupled P2Y(4)R clones. No changes in the behavior of ICWs generated in P2Y(2)R clones were observed after forced expression of Cx43. These data indicate that in 1321N1 cells gap junctional communication provides intercellular integration of Ca(2+) signals generated by P2YR activation, thus coordinating the propagation of intercellular calcium waves.

Astrocytes produce and supply metabolic substrates to neurons through gap junction-mediated astroglial networks. However, the role of astroglial metabolic networks in behavior is unclear. Here, we demonstrate that perturbation of astroglial networks impairs the sleep-wake cycle. Using a conditional Cre-Lox system in mice, we show that knockout of the gap junction subunit connexin 43 in astrocytes throughout the brain causes excessive sleepiness and fragmented wakefulness during the nocturnal active phase. This astrocyte-specific genetic manipulation silenced the wake-promoting orexin neurons located in the lateral hypothalamic area (LHA) by impairing glucose and lactate trafficking through astrocytic networks. This global wakefulness instability was mimicked with viral delivery of Cre recombinase to astrocytes in the LHA and rescued by in vivo injections of lactate. Our findings propose a novel regulatory mechanism critical for maintaining normal daily cycle of wakefulness and involving astrocyte-neuron metabolic interactions.

Astrocytes are coupled to one another by gap junction channels that allow the diffusion of ions and small molecules throughout the interconnected syncytium. In astrocytes, gap junctions are believed to participate in spatial buffering removing the focal excess of potassium resultant from intense neuronal activity by current loops through the syncytium and are also implicated in the propagation of astrocytic calcium waves, a form of extraneuronal signaling. Gap junctions can be modulated by several factors, including elevation of extracellular potassium concentration. Because K(+) elevation is a component of spinal cord injury, we evaluated the extent to which cultured spinal cord astrocytes is affected by K(+) levels and obtained evidence suggesting that a Ca(2+)-calmodulin (CaM) protein kinase is involved in the K(+)-induced increased coupling. Exposure of astrocytes to high K(+) solutions induced a dose-dependent increase in dye coupling; such increased coupling was greatly attenuated by reducing extracellular Ca(2+) concentration, prevented by nifedipine, and potentiated by Bay-K-8644. These results indicate that K(+)-induced increased coupling is mediated by a signaling pathway that is dependent on the influx of Ca(2+) through L-type Ca(2+) channels. Evidence supporting the participation of the CaM kinase pathway on K(+)-induced increased coupling was obtained in experiments showing that calmidazolium and KN-93 totally prevented the increase in dye and electrical coupling induced by high K(+) solutions. Because no changes in connexin43 expression levels or distribution were observed in astrocytes exposed to high K(+) solutions, we propose that the increased junctional communication is related to an increased number of active channels within gap junction plaques.

In this issue, Chanson et al 1 present data that document the failure of airway cells expressing the mutant form of the cystic fibrosis (CF) transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene to down-regulate gap junction connectivity after treatment with the cytokine tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). However, this response could be restored by transfecting in the wild-type CFTR gene, suggesting that a functional CFTR gene is necessary for regulation of gap junctional communication by TNF-α. The authors postulate that the persistence of gap-junction connectivity in the inflamed CF airway epithelium permits the intercellular diffusion of signaling molecules that serve to activate neighboring cells, thus contributing to the excessive inflammatory response characteristic of the CF airway epithelium. Although these conclusions are based only on estimation of gap-junction connectivity using transfer of the gap-junction permeant dye Lucifer Yellow, the data fit well with several studies that have documented regulation of gap junction connectivity in a number of different cell types by proinflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α and interleukin-1β (IL-1β). 2-8 These interesting observations raise the questions of how inflammatory cytokines might regulate gap junction connectivity and in what way expression of the mutant CFTR gene could influence this response.

Electrophysiological properties of gap junction channels and mechanisms involved in the propagation of intercellular calcium waves were studied in cultured spinal cord astrocytes from sibling wild-type (WT) and connexin43 (Cx43) knock-out (KO) mice. Comparison of the strength of coupling between pairs of WT and Cx43 KO spinal cord astrocytes indicates that two-thirds of total coupling is attributable to channels formed by Cx43, with other connexins contributing the remaining one-third of junctional conductance. Although such a difference in junctional conductance was expected to result in the reduced diffusion of signaling molecules through the Cx43 KO spinal cord syncytium, intercellular calcium waves were found to propagate with the same velocity and amplitude and to the same number of cells as between WT astrocytes. Measurements of calcium wave propagation in the presence of purinoceptor blockers indicate that calcium waves in Cx43 KO spinal cord astrocytes are mediated primarily by extracellular diffusion of ATP; measurements of responses to purinoceptor agonists revealed that the functional P2Y receptor subtype is shifted in the Cx43 KO astrocytes, with a markedly potentiated response to ATP and UTP. Thus, the reduction in gap junctional communication in Cx43 KO astrocytes leads to an increase in autocrine communication, which is a consequence of a functional switch in the P2Y nucleotide receptor subtype. Intercellular communication via calcium waves therefore is sustained in Cx43 null mice by a finely tuned interaction between gap junction-dependent and independent mechanisms.

It has become evident that astrocytes play major roles in central nervous system (CNS) function. Because they are endowed with ion channels, transport pathways, and enzymatic intermediates optimized for ionic uptake, degradation of metabolic products, and inactivation of numerous substances, they are able to sense and correct for changes in neural microenvironment. Besides this housekeeping role, astrocytes modulate neuronal activity either by direct communication through gap junctions or through the release of neurotransmitters and/or nucleotides affecting nearby receptors. One prominent mode by which astrocytes regulate their own activity and influence neuronal behavior is via Ca2+ signals, which may be restricted within one cell or be transmitted throughout the interconnected syncytium through the propagation of intercellular calcium waves. This review aims to outline the most recent advances regarding the active communication of astrocytes that is encoded by intracellular calcium variation.

In mammalian astrocytes, calcium waves are transmitted between cells via both a gap junction-mediated pathway and an extracellular, P2 receptor-mediated pathway, which link the cells into a syncytium. Calcium waves in astrocytes have also been shown to evoke calcium transients in neurons, and activity in neurons can elicit calcium waves in astrocytes. In this study, we show that in primary human fetal astrocytes, the P2 receptor-mediated and gap junction-mediated pathways are differentially regulated by the cytokine IL-1β. Confocal microscopy of astrocytes loaded with Indo-1 demonstrated that intercellular calcium wave transmission in IL-1β-treated cultures was potentiated compared with controls. However, transmission of calcium waves via the gap junction-mediated pathway was strikingly reduced. The major component of functional gap junctions in human fetal astrocytes was demonstrated to be connexin43 (Cx43), and there was a marked reduction of junctional conductance, loss of dye coupling, loss of Cx43 protein, and down-regulation of Cx43 mRNA expression after IL-1β treatment of cultures. Conversely, transmission of calcium waves via the P2 receptor-mediated pathway was potentiated in IL-1β-treated cultures compared with controls. This potentiation was associated with an increase in the number of cells responsive to UTP, and with a transient increase in expression of the P2Y2purinoceptor mRNA. Because in inflammatory conditions of the human central nervous system IL-1β is produced both by resident glia and by invading cells of the immune system, our results suggest that inflammatory events may have a significant impact on coordination of astrocytic function and on information processing in the central nervous system.

The molecular identity of the protein forming “hemichannels” at non-junctional membranes is disputed. The family of gap junction proteins, innexins, connexins, and pannexins share several common features, including permeability characteristics and sensitivity to blocking agents. Such overlap in properties renders the identification of which of these protein species actually establishes the non-junctional membrane conductance and permeability quite complicated, especially because in vertebrates pannexins and connexins have largely overlapping distributions in tissues. Recently, attempts to establish criteria to identify events that are “hemichannel” mediated and those to allow the distinction between connexin- from pannexin-mediated events have been proposed. Here, I present an update on that topic and discuss the most recent findings related to the nature of functional “hemichannels” focusing on connexin43 and pannexin1. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: The Communicating junctions, composition, structure and characteristics.

Purinergic P2 receptors and gap junctions are two groups of proteins involved in the transmission of ICWs (intercellular calcium waves) between astrocytes. The extent to which ICWs spread among these glial cells depends on the amount of ATP released, which can occur through membrane channels, as well as other pathways. Our previous studies have shown that the pore-forming P2X7R (P2X7 receptor) contributes to the amplification of ICW spread by providing sites of ATP release through Panx1 (Pannexin1) channels. To gain insight into the signal transduction events mediating this response we compared the properties of the P2X7R–Panx1 complex in astrocytes from a mouse strain (C57Bl/6) containing a naturally occurring point mutation (P451L) in the C-terminus of the P2X7R to that of non-mutated receptors (Balb/C mice). Electrophysiological, biochemical, pharmacological and fluorescence imaging techniques revealed that the P451L mutation located in the SH3 domain (a Src tyrosine kinase-binding site) of the C-terminus of the P2X7R attenuates Panx1 currents, ATP release and the distance of ICW spread between astrocytes. Similar results were obtained when using the Src tyrosine inhibitor (PP2) and a membrane-permeant peptide spanning the P451L mutation of the P2X7R of the C57Bl6 astrocytes. These results support the participation of a tyrosine kinase of the Src family in the initial steps mediating the opening of Panx1 channels following P2X7R stimulation and in the transmission of calcium signals among astrocytes.

Purinergic signaling plays distinct and important roles in the CNS, including the transmission of calcium signals between astrocytes. Gap junction hemichannels are among the mechanisms proposed by which astrocytes might release ATP; however, whether the gap junction protein connexin43 (Cx43) forms these “hemichannels” remains controversial. Recently, a new group of proteins, the pannexins, have been shown to form nonselective, high-conductance plasmalemmal channels permeable to ATP, thereby offering an alternative for the hemichannel protein. Here, we provide strong evidence that, in cultured astrocytes, pannexin1 (Panx1) but not Cx43 forms hemichannels. Electrophysiological and fluorescence microscope recordings performed in wild-type and Cx43-null astrocytes did not reveal any differences in hemichannel activity, which was mostly eliminated by treating Cx43-null astrocytes with Panx1-short interfering RNA [Panx1-knockdown (Panx1-KD)]. Moreover, quantification of the amount of ATP released from wild-type, Cx43-null, and Panx1-KD astrocytes indicates that downregulation of Panx1, but not of Cx43, prevented ATP release from these cells.

Pannexin 1 (Panx1), an ortholog to invertebrate innexin gap junctions, has recently been proposed to be the pore induced by P2X7receptor (P2X7R) activation. We explored the pharmacological action of compounds known to block gap junctions on Panx1 channels activated by the P2X7R and the mechanisms involved in the interaction between these two proteins. Whole cell recordings revealed distinct P2X7R and Panx1 currents in response to agonists. Activation of Panx1 currents following P2X7R stimulation or by membrane depolarization was blocked by Panx1 small-interfering RNA (siRNA) and with mefloquine > carbenoxolone > flufenamic acid. Incubation of cells with KN-62, a P2X7R antagonist, prevented current activation by 2′(3′)- O-(4-benzoylbenzoyl)adenosine 5′-triphosphate (BzATP). Membrane permeabilization to dye induced by BzATP was also prevented by Panx1 siRNA and by carbenoxolone and mefloquine. Membrane permeant (TAT-P2X7) peptides, provided evidence that the Src homology 3 death domain of the COOH-terminus of the P2X7R is involved in the initial steps of the signal transduction events leading to Panx1 activation and that a Src tyrosine kinase is likely involved in this process. Competition assays indicated that 20 μM TAT-P2X7peptide caused 50% reduction in Src binding to the P2X7R complex. Src tyrosine phosphorylation following BzATP stimulation was reduced by KN-62, TAT-P2X7peptide, and by the Src tyrosine inhibitor PP2 and these compounds prevented both large-conductance Panx1 currents and membrane permeabilization. These results together with the lack Panx1 tyrosine phosphorylation in response to P2X7R stimulation indicate the involvement of an additional molecule in the tyrosine kinase signal transduction pathway mediating Panx1 activation through the P2X7R.

In this review, we briefly summarize what is known about the properties of the three families of gap junction proteins, connexins, innexins and pannexins, emphasizing their importance as intercellular channels that provide ionic and metabolic coupling and as non-junctional channels that can function as a paracrine signaling pathway. We discuss that two distinct groups of proteins form gap junctions in deuterostomes (connexins) and protostomes (innexins), and that channels formed of the deuterostome homologues of innexins (pannexins) differ from connexin channels in terms of important structural features and activation properties. These differences indicate that the two families of gap junction proteins serve distinct, complementary functions in deuterostomes. In several tissues, including the CNS, both connexins and pannexins are involved in intercellular communication, but have different roles. Connexins mainly contribute by forming the intercellular gap junction channels, which provide for junctional coupling and define the communication compartments in the CNS. We also provide new data supporting the concept that pannexins form the non-junctional channels that play paracrine roles by releasing ATP and, thus, modulating the range of the intercellular Ca2+-wave transmission between astrocytes in culture.

Modulation of synaptic transmission and brain microcirculation are new roles ascribed to astrocytes in CNS function. A mechanism by which astrocytes modify neuronal activity in the healthy brain depends on fluctuations of cytosolic Ca2+levels, which regulate the release of “gliotransmitters” via an exocytic pathway. Under pathological conditions, however, the participation of other pathways, including connexin hemichannels and the pore-forming P2X7R, have been proposed but remain controversial. Through the use of genetically modified 1321N1 human astrocytoma cells and of spinal cord astrocytes derived from neonatal Cx43- and P2X7R-null mice, we provide strong evidence that P2X7Rs, but not Cx43 hemichannels, are sites of ATP release that promote the amplification of Ca2+signal transmission within the astrocytic network after exposure to low divalent cation solution. Moreover, our results showing that gap junction channel blockers (heptanol, octanol, carbenoxolone, flufenamic acid, and mefloquine) are antagonists of the P2X7R indicate the inadequacy of using these compounds as evidence for the participation of connexin hemichannels as sites of gliotransmitter release.

We describe a two-dimensional stochastic model of intercellular Ca2+ wave (ICW) spread in glia that includes contributions of external stimuli, ionotropic and metabotropic P2 receptors, exo- and ecto-nucleotidases, second messengers, and gap junctions. In this model, an initial stimulus evokes ATP and UTP release from a single cell. Agonists diffuse and are degraded both in bulk solution and at cell surfaces. Ca2+ elevation in individual cells is determined by bound agonist concentrations s and by number and features of P2 receptors summed with that generated by IP3 diffusing through gap junction channels. Variability of ICWs is provided by randomly distributing a predetermined density of cells in a rectangular grid and by randomly selecting within intervals values characterizing the extracellular compartment, individual cells, and interconnections with neighboring cells. Variability intervals were obtained from experiments on astrocytoma cells transfected to express individual P2 receptors and/or the gap junction protein connexin43. The simulation program (available as Supplementary Material) permits individual alteration of ICW components, allowing comparison of simulations with data from cells expressing connexin43 and/or various P2 receptor subtypes. Such modeling is expected to be useful for testing phenomenological hypotheses and in understanding consequences of alteration of system components under experimental or pathological conditions.

Gap junctions are connexin-formed channels that play an important role in intercellular communication in most cell types. In the immune system, specifically in macrophages, the expression of connexins and the establishment of functional gap junctions are still controversial issues. Macrophages express P2X7 receptors that, once activated by the binding of extracellular ATP, lead to the opening of transmembrane pores permeable to molecules of up to 900 Da. There is evidence suggesting an interplay between gap junctions and P2 receptors in different cell systems. Thus, we used ATP-sensitive and -insensitive J774.G8 macrophage cell lines to investigate this interplay. To study junctional communication in J774-macrophage-like cells, we assessed cell-to-cell communication by microinjecting Lucifer Yellow. Confluent cultures of ATP-sensitive J774 cells (ATP-s cells) are coupled, whereas ATP-insensitive J774 cells (ATP-i cells), derived by overexposing J774 cells to extracellular ATP until they do not display the phenomenon of ATP-induced permeabilization, are essentially uncoupled. Western-blot and reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction assays revealed that ATP-s and ATP-i cells express connexin43 (Cx43), whereas only ATP-s cells express the P2X7 receptor. Accordingly, ATP-i cells did not display any detectable ATP-induced current under whole-cell patch-clamp recordings. Using immunofluorescence microscopy, Cx43 reactivity was found at the cell surface and in regions of cell-cell contact of ATP-s cells, whereas, in ATP-i cells, Cx43 immunoreactivity was only present in cytosolic compartments. Using confocal microscopy, it is shown here that, in ATP-s cells as well as in peritoneal macrophages, Cx43 and P2X7 receptors are co-localized to the membrane of ATP-s cells and peritoneal macrophages.

This chapter discusses the cell communication. Cells within the nervous system are responsive to blood–brain permeant hormones and nutrients and interact with other neural cells through long-range and local signaling mechanisms. Gap junction channels make up electrical synapses between neurons and form direct pathways for the diffusional exchange of metabolites and ions among glia. It synchronizes neuronal activity, provides pathways for second messenger and metabolite exchange, and may modulate cell growth, differentiation, and organization. Abnormal gap junction expression or function is associated with both genetic and somatic disease states, presumably contributing to the pathology through loss of the important intercellular pathway provided by these channels. As discussed in the chapter, in mice connexins are deleted by molecular genetic manipulation that provides model systems in which the roles of specific gap junction types can be explored in detail, and the contribution of functionally ablated gap junctions to different pathological situations can be directly assessed. Each gap junction channel is made of two mirror image symmetric components (one contributed by each cell) called “connexons” or “hemichannels,” and each connexon in turn comprises six homologous subunits, the connexin molecules.

Neuronal exocytotic release of glutamate at synapses involves a highly specialized vesicular apparatus, consisting of a variety of proteins connected to the vesicles or required for vesicular fusion to the presynaptic membrane. Astrocytes also release glutamate, and recent evidence indicates that this release can modify neuronal function. Several mechanisms have been proposed for astrocytic release of glutamate under pathological conditions, such as reversal of glutamate transporters and opening of volume sensitive ion channels. In this review we limit our discussion to findings supporting the exocytotic release of glutamate, as well as two new pathways implicated in this release, the ionotropic (P2X) purinergic receptors and gap junction hemichannels.

Propagation of intercellular calcium waves (ICW) between astrocytes depends on the diffusion of signaling molecules through gap junction channels and diffusion through the extracellular space of neuroactive substances acting on plasmalemmal receptors. The relative contributions of these two pathways vary in different brain regions and under certain pathological conditions. We have previously shown that in wild-type spinal cord astrocytes, ICW are primarily gap junction-dependent, but that deletion of the main gap junction protein (Cx43) by homologous recombination results in a switch in mode of ICW propagation to a purinoceptor-dependent mechanism. Such a compensatory mechanism for ICW propagation was related to changes in the pharmacological profile of P2Y receptors, from an adenine-sensitive P2Y(1), in wild-type, to a uridine-sensitive P2U receptor subtype, in Cx43 knockout (KO) astrocytes. Using oligonucleotide antisense to Cx43 mRNA for acute downregulation of connexin43 expression levels, we provide evidence for the molecular nature of such compensatory mechanism. Pharmacological studies and Western blot analysis indicate that there is a reciprocal regulation of P2Y(1) and P2Y(4) expression levels, such that downregulation of Cx43 leads to decreased expression of the adenine-sensitive P2Y(1) receptor and increased expression of the uridine-sensitive P2Y(4) receptor. This change in functional expression of the P2Y receptor subtype population in acutely downregulated Cx43 was paralleled by changes in the mode of ICW propagation, similar to that previously observed for Cx43 KO spinal cord astrocytes. On the basis of these results, we propose that Cx43 regulates both modes of ICW by altering P2Y receptor subtype expression in addition to providing intercellular coupling.

Publisher Summary This chapter summarizes the evidence that gap junctions between astrocytes provide a pathway for direct intercellular exchange of ions, nutrients, and signaling molecules. It discusses that this direct intercellular pathway may be a part of the machinery responsible for the delivery of nutrients to neurons, ridding the extracellular space of excess of K + and glutamate, spreading intercellular waves of Ca 2+ , and exchanging cell death signals. Although this intercellular network is not truly syncytial, as it consists entirely of discrete cellular elements, the interconnections extend cellular functions, such as enlarging the buffer volume for dilution of K + and toxins, as well as integrating the cells with different classes of nonjunctional proteins into functional units. The chapter also reviews that new study carefully defining the surfaces of the interactions between individual astrocytes indicates that each has its own private volume, where intercellular communication is limited to the outermost fringes surrounding the autocellular space. Within this space, hundreds of oligodendrocytes may intermingle with fine astrocyte processes and tens of thousands of synapses are surrounded by individual processes of a single astrocyte.

The gap junction protein connexin43 (Cx43) is the primary component of intercellular channels in cardiac tissue and in astrocytes, the most abundant type of glial cells in the brain. Mice in which the gene for Cx43 is deleted by homologous recombination die at birth, due to profound hypertrophy of the ventricular outflow tract and stenosis of the pulmonary artery. Despite this significant cardiovascular abnormality, brains of connexin43 null [Cx43 (−/−)] animals are shown to be macroscopically normal and to display a pattern of cortical lamination that is not detectably different from wildtype siblings. Presence of Cx40 and Cx45 in brains and astrocytes cultured from both Cx43 (−/−) mice and wildtype littermates was confirmed by RT-PCR, Northern blot analyses and by immunostaining; Cx46 was detected by RT-PCR and Northern blot analyses. Presence of Cx26 in astrocyte cultures was indicated by RT-PCR and by Western blot analysis, although we were unable to resolve whether it was contributed by contaminating cells; Cx30 mRNA was detected by Northern blot in long term (2 weeks) but not fresh cultures of astrocytes. These studies thus reveal that astrocyte gap junctions may be formed of multiple connexins. Presumably, the metabolic and ionic coupling provided by these diverse gap junction types may functionally compensate for the absence of the major astrocyte gap junction protein in Cx43 (−/−) mice, providing whatever intercellular signaling is necessary for brain development and cortical lamination.

Publisher Summary One of the critical steps taken during the evolution of multicellular organisms was to integrate and coordinate the activity of cells comprising the tissues. Modes of intercellular signaling involved in intercellular communication include paracrine, synaptic, and endocrine pathways, as well as direct signal exchange through intercellular gap junction channels. Although many ions and small molecules may ultimately be involved in relaying intercellular signals, spatial and temporal alterations in the intracellular Ca 2+ levels in the form of Ca 2+ spikes, oscillations, and waves are the major events in signal transduction and communication. This chapter summarizes the results obtained from numerous laboratories indicating the dual contribution of gap junctions and extracellular signals to cell-to-cell communication through propagated Ca 2+ waves. Because most of the studies have primarily concentrated on the properties of such waves in the nervous system astrocytes and airway epithelial cells, this chapter emphasizes these systems in the consideration of wave properties and mechanisms. However, because of the potential implication of such signaling in contracting tissue, where Ca 2+ mobilization plays a fundamental role in tissue function, it has also highlighted recent studies on cardiac muscle and myocytes.

Publisher Summary The molecular biological revolution has affected the studies of gap junctions for only about a dozen years. During this time, gap junction channels have been shown to be encoded by a family of connexin genes, and properties of these channels have been characterized in the mammalian cell lines and in Xenopus oocyte expression systems. Mutagenesis has begun to identify functional gating domains, and surprisingly common human genetic diseases have been associated with coding and noncoding region mutations in genes encoding several of the connexins. The newest approach, and the one emphasized in this chapter, consists of the evaluation of tissue and organ functions in mice in which the expression of individual connexin genes has been disrupted by homologous recombination [so-called gene “knockout” (KO) mice]. The chapter briefly discusses what the transgenics have expressed so far, emphasizing physiological studies carried out in the animals and in tissue culture, where properties of intercellular channels can be studied in detail. The extensive characterization of cellular, tissue, and organ alterations in these and other connexin knockout mice still have a long way to go before their phenotypes are totally understood. But such studies already demonstrate the impact that genetic manipulation has had on the field so far, and also highlight why it is currently so much fun to be a physiologist.

The historical perception of glia as simply the glue or putty that holds together the neurons in the nervous system has undergone a recent, radical change (Dermietzel and Spray, 1998). Glia are now known to possess many of the channels, receptors, and transport machinery formerly assigned exclusively to neurons for dissipation of local changes in the neuronal microenvironment. Endowed with these mechanisms, individual glial cells, astrocytes in particular, respond to diverse nervous system signals and thus actively participate in brain function. Because glial cells are connected to one another by gap junction channels, allowing direct intercellular diffusion of ions and signaling molecules, the receptors on individual glia could be effectively shared throughout the network. Thus, gap junctions serve to coordinate and integrate glial activity throughout the nervous system, providing a mechanism whereby both bulk flow of water and solutes as well as regenerative processes such as Ca2+ waves may travel long distances.

Gap junctions are regarded as the primary pathway underlying propagation of Ca2+ waves between astrocytes, although signaling through extracellular space may also contribute. Results obtained from astrocytes cultured from sibling Cx43 knockout (KO) and wild-type (WT) mice in six litters showed that Ca2+ waves propagated more slowly in Cx43 KO than in WT astrocytes; however, because this difference in velocity was only seen in conditions where cell confluence was higher in WT than KO astrocytes, it is attributable to differences in plating density. By contrast, density-independent differences were observed in the amplitudes of the Ca2+ responses (15% smaller in KO astrocytes) and efficacy of spread (to 14% fewer cells in KO astrocytes). Blockade of purinergic receptors with suramin reduced the velocities of the waves by 40% in WT and KO astrocytes and reduced the amplitudes by 20% and 6%, respectively. In the presence of heptanol, Ca2+ waves spread to only 30% of the cells, with a 70% reduced velocity and 30% reduced amplitude. It is concluded that the propagation of Ca2+ waves between astrocytes from Cx43 KO mice is not so greatly affected as expected by deletion of the major gap junction protein between these cells. The residual 5% coupling contributed by the additional connexins (Cx40, Cx45, and Cx46) expressed in KO astrocytes still suffices to provide a more substantial portion of Ca2+ wave propagation than does signaling through extracellular purinergic pathways. These studies demonstrate that, even with severely reduced junctional conductance, Cx43 KO astrocytes are capable of performing long-range Ca2+ wave signaling, perhaps preserving one mechanism critical to neural function.

When exposed to 20% and 35%, but not to 50% hyposmotic solutions, mouse astrocytes recovered their volume within a few minutes, which coincided with the activation of nonjunctional conductances. Conductance of gap junctions between astrocyte pairs also increased after exposure to a 35% hyposmotic shock; however, this effect began at 3 min after the shock, when cells had partially recovered their initial volumes. During the first minute of exposure to 20% and 35% hyposmotic stimuli, there was a transient monophasic increase in intracellular calcium levels; exposure to 50% hyposmotic solution led to intracellular Ca 2+ oscillations. The differences in time courses of nonjunctional conductance changes, Ca 2+ alterations, and intercellular coupling suggest that distinct second messenger pathways are involved in each response. The velocity of mechanically evoked calcium waves propagated among the astrocytes increased at 7.5 min after 35% hyposmotic shock. This increase was not seen with 20% or 50% hyposmotic stimuli and is not ascribable to the increase in junctional conductance because it was blocked by suramin, a P2 purinergic receptor antagonist. Given that the transduction pathways activated during cell swelling (e.g., generation of phospholipases, phosphokinases, arachidonic acid) exert inhibitory effects on astrocytic gap junctions (Giaume and McCarthy, 1996), it is proposed that the increased junctional conductance during hyposmotic shock is due to increased number of channels, perhaps triggered by the initial Ca 2+ signals (Dolmetsch et al., 1997). As a functional consequence of the increased coupling and enhanced extracellular propagation of Ca 2+ waves, spread of signaling molecules throughout the glial network is expected to be significantly enhanced during hyposmotic stress. The increased intercellular communication between mouse astrocytes in response to hyposmotic challenge thus occurs via both gap junction-dependent and -independent mechanisms and presumably provides neuroprotective effects following nervous system injury.