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Endophytic fungi are widely present in internal plant tissues and provide different benefits to their host. Medicinal plants have unexplored diversity of functional fungal association; therefore, this study aimed to isolate endophytic fungi associated with leaves of medicinal plants Ephedra pachyclada and evaluate their plant growth-promoting properties. Fifteen isolated fungal endophytes belonging to Ascomycota, with three different genera, Penicillium, Alternaria, and Aspergillus , were obtained from healthy leaves of E. pachyclada . These fungal endophytes have varied antimicrobial activity against human pathogenic microbes and produce ammonia and indole acetic acid (IAA), in addition to their enzymatic activity. The results showed that Penicillium commune EP-5 had a maximum IAA productivity of 192.1 ± 4.04 µg mL -1 in the presence of 5 µg mL -1 tryptophan. The fungal isolates of Penicillium crustosum EP-2 , Penicillium chrysogenum EP-3, and Aspergillus flavus EP-14 exhibited variable efficiency for solubilizing phosphate salts. Five representative fungal endophytes of Penicillium crustosum EP-2, Penicillium commune EP-5, Penicillium caseifulvum EP-11, Alternaria tenuissima EP-13, and Aspergillus flavus EP-14 and their consortium were selected and applied as bioinoculant to maize plants. The results showed that Penicillium commune EP-5 increased root lengths from 15.8 ± 0.8 to 22.1 ± 0.6. Moreover, the vegetative growth features of inoculated maize plants improved more than the uninoculated ones.

Simple Summary: The main challenge in libraries, archives, and museums is the fungal deterioration of historical manuscripts (paper and leather), and an eco-friendly approach can be used to reduce or stop biodeterioration. Therefore, the current study examines the green synthesis of titanium oxide nanoparticles (TiO2-NPs) using a green method to inhibit the growth of fungal strains isolated from deteriorated historical manuscripts. Fifteen fungal strains were involved in the deterioration of historical manuscripts dating back to the 16th century that were identified by traditional and molecular identification. In addition, their potential in biodeterioration was investigated by hydrolytic enzymatic activities. TiO2-NPs were synthesized using a probiotic bacterial extract as a safe method and characterized by UV-Vis spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), energy dispersive X-ray (EDX), and Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR). The safe concentration of synthesized TiO2-NPs that was used as a coating agent for leather to inhibit fungal growth was detected via the investigation of in vitro cytotoxicity against two normal cell lines (skin and lung). The experimental study showed that the leather without NP treatment and inoculated with the most potent fungal strain exhibited high deterioration compared with those coated with NPs and inoculated with fungal strain. The main hypothesis of the present research is investigating the efficacy of titanium oxide nanoparticles (TiO2-NPs) to prevent the growth of fungal strains when applied on leather under an experimental study. Therefore, fifteen fungal strains were isolated from a deteriorated historical manuscript (papers and leathers) and identified by traditional methods and ITS sequence analysis, including Aspergillus chevalieri (one isolate), A. nidulans (two strains), A. flavus (four strains), A. cristatus (one strain), A. niger (one strain), Paecilomyces fulvus (two strains), Penicillium expansum (two strains), and P. citrinum (two strains). The enzymes cellulase, amylase, pectinase, and gelatinase, which play a crucial role in biodegradation, were highly active in these fungal strains. TiO2-NPs were formed using the cell-free filtrate of the probiotic bacterial strain, Lactobacillus plantarum, and characterized. Data showed that the TiO2-NPs were successfully formed with a spherical shape and anatase phase with sizes of 2–8 nm. Moreover, the EDX analysis revealed that the Ti and O ions occupied the main component with weight percentages of 41.66 and 31.76%, respectively. The in vitro cytotoxicity of TiO2-NPs toward two normal cell lines, WI38 and HFB4, showed a low toxicity effect against normal cells (IC50 = 114.1 ± 8.1µg mL−1 for Wi38, and 237.5 ± 3.5µg mL−1 for HFB4). Therefore, concentrations of 100 μg mL−1 were used to load on prepared leather samples before inoculation with fungal strain P. expansum AL1. The experimental study revealed that the loaded TiO2-NPs have the efficacy to inhibit fungal growth with percentages of 73.2 ± 2.5%, 84.2 ± 1.8%, and 88.8 ± 0.6% after 7, 14, and 21 days, respectively. Also, the analyses including SEM, FTIR-ART, color change, and mechanical properties for leather inoculated with fungal strain AL1 in the absence of NPs showed high damage aspects compared to those inoculated with fungal strains in the presence of TiO2-NPs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Herein, twelve fungal strains were isolated from a deteriorated historical manuscript dated back to the 18th century. The obtained fungal strains were identified, using the traditional method and ITS sequence analysis, as Cladosporium herbarum (two strains), Aspergillus fumigatus (five strains), A. ustus (one strain), A. flavus (two strains), A. niger (one strain), and Penicillium chrysogenum (one strain). The ability of these fungal strains to degrade the main components of the paper was investigated by their activity to secrete extracellular enzymes including cellulase, amylase, gelatinase, and pectinase. The cell-free filtrate (CFF) ability of the probiotic bacterial strain Lactobacillus rhamnosus ATCC-7469 to inhibit fungal growth was investigated. The metabolic profile of CFF was detected by GC-MS analysis, which confirmed the low and high molecular weight of various active chemical compounds. The safe dose to be used for the biocontrol of fungal growth was selected by investigating the biocompatibility of CFF and two normal cell lines, Wi38 (normal lung tissue) and HFB4 (normal human skin melanocyte). Data showed that the CFF has a cytotoxic effect against the two normal cell lines at high concentrations, with IC50 values of 525.2 ± 9.8 and 329.1 ± 4.2 µg mL−1 for Wi38 and HFB4, respectively. The antifungal activity showed that the CFF has promising activity against all fungal strains in a concentration-dependent manner. The highest antifungal activity (100%) was recorded for a concentration of 300 µg mL−1 with a zone of inhibition (ZOI) in the ranges of 21.3 ± 0.6 to 17.7 ± 0.5 mm. At a concentration of 100 µg mL−1, the activity of CFF remained effective against all fungal strains (100%), but its effectiveness decreased to only inhibit the growth of eight strains (66%) out of the total at 50 µg mL−1. In general, probiotic bacterial strains containing CFF are safe and can be considered as a potential option for inhibiting the growth of various fungal strains. It is recommended that they be used in the preservation of degraded historical papers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Soil and environmental conditions in the museum affected the studied skeleton. • Bores, stains, missed parts, etc. are the common aspects of deterioration. • Advanced analytical techniques were used to explain the deterioration mechanisms. • Green synthesized (Ag-NPs and MgO NPs) gave efficacy to suppress the fungal growth. • Ag-NPs at 300 ppm was recommended for disinfection of the skeleton studied. The deterioration aspects of Papio Hamadryas skeleton dating back to the Greco-Roman period, and its associated fungal strains were investigated. Also, the efficacy of two green synthesized nanoparticles to suppress fungal growth was assessed. The results stated that the accumulated dust, erosion, holes, and colour change were the most significant deterioration aspects. The digital light microscope and scanning electron microscope (SEM) showed some micro-cracks and the presence of fauna identified as woodlice. Attenuated total reflection – Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR/FTIR) proved that the archaeological bone suffered from deterioration since the wavenumber of most bands and their intensities were lower compared to the control. The most common fungal strains associated with deteriorated bones were Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus delicatus, Aspergillus parasiticus, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus oryzae, Penicillium expansum, Penicillium oxalicum, Penicillium digitatum, Cladosporium sp., and Paecilomyces sp. These strains exhibited varied enzymatic activity, including protease, pectinase, cellulase, and gelatinase. Green synthesized silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) and magnesium nanoparticles MgO-NPs showed sufficient tools to suppress radial fungal growth. The growth inhibition percentages of Ag-NPs (69.1 ± 1.3–81.5 ± 2.01%) were more efficient than those recorded by MgO-NPs (59.5 ± 0.9 – 74.3 ± 2.8%) at a concentration of 300 ppm. The inhibition percentages were decreased at low NPs (200 and 100 ppm) concentrations, but it is still a promising tool to suppress fungal growth. This study recommended that Ag-NPs at 300 ppm may be used in the disinfection of the archaeological skeleton studied. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]