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In this paper we use the lens of political ecology to shed light on the causes and effects of pro-poor REDD+ induced land use conflicts. We build our study on recent theoretical work on territorialisation in nature conservation to analyse the conflicts and outcomes of the TFCG/Mjumita REDD+ project in Lindi, Tanzania. Drawing on qualitative fieldwork in two case study villages we argue that conservation organisations increasingly make use of participatory tools, FPIC procedures and good governance principles to include local populations in the creation of what we call market-based conservation territories (MBCT). In contrast to project developer’s claims of win–win benefits, we highlight the mixed outcomes of MBCTs and argue that their performance-driven nature and reliance on formal governance arrangements lead to the enclosure of common forests. This inevitably causes conflicts between and within villages over the meaning, ownership and access to forest resources, especially given the importance of customary relations in tropical rural contexts. We argue that despite the extensive community engagement strategy and genuine pro-poor approach of the REDD+ project, project proponents were unable to prevent land use conflicts and risks of economic and physical displacement. The specific social, economic and political conditions shaped the implementation of the project which led to negative consequences to some stakeholders despite genuinely noble intentions. Therefore, we argue that in order to achieve more positive results when creating MBCT, project developers must better acknowledge the inherent trade-offs of markets in conservation and take the limitations and realities of local governance context better into account. We suggest a more explicit assessment of social and environmental justice in the project and more context-specific efforts to prevent social harm from conservation. Theoretically, our study contributes to a better understanding of territorialisation processes under the current trend of market-based conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reconciling conservation with rural development often constitutes a socio-environmental dilemma, in which ecotourism plays the part of either the panacea or the ‘poverty trap’ for local populations. Features of the local context, such as social heterogeneity, opportunities for education and jobs, and images of rural and urban life, provide a more nuanced understanding of this polarised debate. In this analysis of a youth ecotourism project, we consider that youth face distinct daily struggles and have aspirations in life that differ from those of the older generation. Therefore, the opportunities/constraints in and around protected areas influence and affect them in particular ways. In this paper, we address the gap in the literature on the position of young people living in peri-urban areas nearby conservation units, as we believe that these factors may shed some lights on the importance of intangible outcomes of sustainable development/conservation projects. Based on data from the peri-urban ‘forest town’ Curuçá on the Amazonian Atlantic coast of Brazil, we discuss how young people, involved in an ecotourism project in the Marine Extractive Reserve Mãe Grande de Curuçá, perceive their roles when it comes to conservation and development, education, jobs and their aspirations for the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forest is a God gifted natural resources ant its management and conservation on sustainable basis is considered to bet the prime responsibility of every nation if they want to conserve their natural habituates for their future generations .Islam is a universal religion. It teaches humanity especially its believers, to lead a moderate life and prohibits extravagancy. Extravagancy and following wishes and desires results in the unabated loss of natural resources including forests, which creates several hazards for wild life as well as human being. Environmental experts are focusing the concentration of people to these hazards. About one third of human population comprises Muslims, who prefer to act upon the teachings of Islam. In this article we have tried to clarify that planting trees and forests is means of reward for Muslims in this world as in the hereafter as, it is termed as Sadaqa Jaria by the Holy prophet, for them. Cutting of forests unsparingly, is injustice with humanity and wild life. In this review paper, it has been tried to remind people for increasing and extending forests and consider it as a religious duty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to meet its Kyoto Protocol commitment targets, the Italian Government has made relevant investments in forest projects in developing countries through the Clean Development Mechanism. This paper investigates the Italian participated afforestation/reforestation (A/R) projects under the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol, by considering the countries hosting forestry projects, the project areas, the estimated emission reductions, the use of tree species (native/non-native), the issuance of Carbon credits, and the projects' contribution to sustainable development and technology transfer in general, as stated by the "Project Design Document" of each project. This study utilizes the "Project Design Documents" and "Monitoring Reports" of the registered projects in the United Nations Convention on Climate Change database and data from the BioCarbon Fund database. Results show that, in terms of number of projects, the A/R sector is a prominent component of the Italian CDM portfolio. The financing of the 16 projects by the Italian government, with a total of about 65 k ha planted and an estimated emission reductions of about 556 k tCO2 eq per year, are based on criteria that differ substantially from the ongoing policy adopted for domestic forest interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forest administrators play a crucial role in translating conservation and development policies into action, yet policy reformers and scholars rarely examine how these administrators make decisions about the implementation of conservation and development policy in India. In this paper, I address this gap. I begin by developing a framework that draws on Western policy implementation studies and Ostrom's Institutional Analysis and Development framework and then apply this framework to a review of published studies that examine the role of forest officials in implementing public policies in India. The framework differentiates between formal and informal institutions and between institutions which are developed within an agency and those that are directed from outside the agency. I find that forester behavior varies significantly across space and time and has an important influence on the outcome of forestry programs. Innovations and excellent program implementation appear related to foresters' desire to demonstrate professional efficacy. On the other hand, many failings can be traced either to external direction or to foresters developing internal institutions that are poorly suited to the problems they are tasked with solving. Existing research is limited in its geographic and temporal scope and leaves many questions unanswered, and thus, the review concludes with a brief outline of future research needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper seeks to examine the contribution of cocoa-based agroforestry systems (CAFS) in the conservation of native tree species of nearby forests. The study was conducted in two sites in Mbankomo sub-division of Cameroon, where a field inventory was carried out in both land use systems in 26 sample plots of 30 × 30 m each, in 20 cocoa agroforest plots and six adjacent secondary forests plots. Tree diversity, composition and structure in the cocoa agroforests and secondary forests were characterized, α-diversity was evaluated and similarity/dissimilarity of species composition assessed using non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS). The results reveal that all the CAFS appear to conserve 46 % of forest tree species found in nearby forests. This may be justified by the multipurpose use of forest tree species during the implementation and the evolution of the CAFS on a spatial-temporal scale. CAFS harbored lower forest tree species diversity at the plot level compared to nearby forest stands meanwhile the non-parametric estimator suggested that both land uses conserve approximately the same species richness. Mean values for species richness, the Shannon and reciprocal Simpsons indices diversity, stem density and basal area were significantly higher in forests than in CAFS ( p < 0.001). The NMDS showed a clear dissimilarity which was confirmed by the R = 0.998 and p value = 0.009 of the analysis of similarities test between cocoa agroforests and forest stands. In conclusion, the results show that CAFS can serve as reservoirs for the conservation of forest tree species; this can be expanded if the issue of ownership of timber forest trees is addressed in the forest law. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Even though global interest in mangrove research has increased in recent years, unveiling their immense ecological and economic roles, very little work has been done to investigate the primary driving factors motivating long-term community-based mangrove restoration and management on local scales. In Ghana, policy makers and coastal management practitioners have recently embraced the concept of community-based and co-management of coastal and marine resources. Community-based and co-management approaches require that key stakeholders, most notably the resource users themselves, play significant roles and responsibilities in the management process. However, there is little evaluation of the process in Ghana to assess the success or otherwise, particularly of the few and long standing examples of community-based approaches in coastal resource management. With special reference to an over two decade old community-based mangrove forestry programme along the Volta estuary of Ghana, this paper provides concepts for examination of the ecological and socioeconomic factors influencing mangrove restoration and management by fishers, fish mongers, farmers and their socioeconomic groupings. Participatory GIS mapping and the use of orthophotos generated for the period 1974–2011 provided additional information on temporal evolution of the extent of mangrove areas restored and managed by local stakeholders. Socioeconomic assessment of mangrove products utility was done through questionnaire interviews. The results indicate that livelihoods and economic benefits are the primary factors that motivate local stakeholders' participation in mangrove restoration and management. Mangroves provisioning services, markets and low livelihoods diversification are major drivers of mangrove resources exploitation. The study has shown that mangroves resources can be sustainably exploited, restored and managed if local customary rules are enforced and institutional arrangements put in place to mediate mangrove exploitation and regeneration rates. Such an approach if well developed, could promote coastal resources conservation with high economic returns for the users. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of International Forestry Review is the property of Commonwealth Forestry Association and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of International Forestry Review is the property of Commonwealth Forestry Association and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Nuaulu (Seram, Maluku, Indonesia) manage forest to provision sacred house building and ritual feasting through a system of protected areas (sin wesie), examined here in relation to sasi institutions and scare charms (matakau) that overlap in their functions. Sasi feature in wider debates about how customary practices might deliver conservation objectives. The paper analyses interconnections between these three forms of regulation in the context of deforestation, social change and the recent history of state management interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Community forestry enterprises are increasing participation in forestry activity and have become a favoured approach for reaching goals of conservation, poverty reduction and community development. Much has been written about the importance of supportive policy frameworks, technical assistance, the broader market in which these enterprises operate and the need for more significant control by communities over forests and their benefits through secure resource rights as key points of action. However, there is still a considerable knowledge gap in terms of understanding their organizational behaviour and how it affects the accomplishment of their goals. This paper takes a first step in filling this gap and analyses managerial behaviour in CFEs through the use of theories on principal–agent relationships. Data collected from CFEs in the Mayan Biosphere Reserve in Petén, Guatemala reveal important insights about managerial behaviour in these firms and how embeddedness of the CFE within the wider community plays a major role in managerial decision-making. Several policy implications are derived from these findings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary Protected areas are a cornerstone of forest conservation in developing countries. Yet little is known about their effects on forest cover change or the socioeconomic status of local communities. This paper assesses whether “win–win” scenarios are possible—that is, whether protected areas can both stem forest cover change and alleviate poverty. We examine protected areas in the Peruvian Amazon during the early 2000s. We find that protected areas reduce deforestation. We do not find a robust effect on poverty. Protected areas that allow sustainable extractive activities are more effective in reducing deforestation but less effective in reducing poverty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forest cover is viewed as a resource for the nation as it provides ecosystem services. However, it becomes a burden and retards development for the people of the area, particularly the hills, where such forests flourish. Enactment of stringent laws over the past few decades has strictly prohibited tree felling in these areas, and it has become a deterrent in their growth process. While on one hand, the plains are abuzz with economic activity, on the other hand, the sparse population of the hills is compelled to bear the responsibility of maintaining ecological balance. In this context, the issue of development along with forest sustainability becomes important. Using the case study of the hills of Uttarakhand, India, the paper attempts to highlight the problems and the possible strategies that may be adopted to facilitate inclusive socioeconomic development of forest dwellers while ensuring conservation and enhancement of forest cover. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Participatory forest monitoring has been promoted as a means to engage local forest-dependent communities in concrete climate mitigation activities as it brings a sense of ownership to the communities and hence increases the likelihood of success of forest preservation measures. However, sceptics of this approach argue that local community forest members will not easily attain the level of technical proficiency that accurate monitoring needs. Thus it is interesting to establish if local communities can attain such a level of technical proficiency. This paper addresses this issue by assessing the robustness of biomass estimation models based on air-borne laser data using models calibrated with two different field sample designs namely, field data gathered by professional forester teams and field data collected by local communities trained by professional foresters in two study sites in Nepal. The aim is to find if the two field sample data sets can give similar results (LiDAR models) and whether the data can be combined and used together in estimating biomass. Results: Results show that even though the sampling designs and principles of both field campaigns were different, they produced equivalent regression models based on LiDAR data. This was successful in one of the sites (Gorkha). At the other site (Chitwan), however, major discrepancies remained in model-based estimates that used different field sample data sets. This discrepancy can be attributed to the complex terrain and dense forest in the site which makes it difficult to obtain an accurate digital elevation model (DTM) from LiDAR data, and neither set of data produced satisfactory results. Conclusions: Field sample data produced by professional foresters and field sample data produced by professionally trained communities can be used together without affecting prediction performance provided that the correlation between LiDAR predictors and biomass estimates is good enough. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are hundreds of scientific papers dealing with the issues of biodiversity and extinction debt in temperate forests, both of which are partly related to the absence of deadwood. Some studies have derived habitat thresholds for deadwood (according to species, size, spatial distribution) as baselines for management recommendations. But a majority of studies have one important knowledge gap – how long does it take for deadwood to decompose? To derive the residence time of deadwood, we used a 40-year time series of 4 censuses in European lowland hardwood temperate forests. The deadwood residence of 2252 logs of 5 main tree species was calculated using Bayesian Survival Trajectory Analysis. Pedunculate oak ( Quercus robur ) had the longest residence time, with the largest logs decomposing for an average of 62 years. Next was narrow-leaved ash ( Fraxinus angustifolia ) with a residence time of about 42 years. Field maple ( Acer campestre ) and hornbeam ( Carpinus betulus ) had a similar residence time – with the largest logs averaging 37–39 years. Elm ( Ulmus sp.) had the fastest decomposition of large-sized logs – estimated at 24 years. Generally, small-sized logs of all investigated species decomposed quickly. Conversely, large-sized logs of hornbeam and ash decomposed as quickly as their intermediate-sized logs. Large-sized logs of elm decayed even faster than intermediate-sized logs. An analysis of the position of field maple logs during decomposition showed that those decomposing in the air or in water decomposed slower than logs “on the ground”, with a half-life of 40 years (compared to 28 years on the ground) and a residence time of 54 years (44 years on the ground). Our results suggest that the management of deadwood should focus on (i) leaving the largest logs, which took the longest time to reach advanced decay stages, and (ii) a diversified approach regarding the individual residence time of different tree species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Costa Rica was a pioneer in implementing the concept of ecosystem services through a dedicated policy instrument: the Payment for Environmental Services programme (PESP) formalised in February 1996 in the 4th forestry law. However, the policy process that led to the design of the PESP and its consequences for its subsequent governance have never been fully analysed. Our paper aims at answering three questions: why PESP was adopted, what are the factors which enabled the speedy adoption of PESP, and how does the policy process affect the governance of the programme. Between 2008 and 2012, we interviewed 42 key representatives and stakeholders involved in the policy process. We also reviewed laws, decrees, and academic and grey literature. We combined the sequential policy cycle model to identify the sequences of the genesis of the PESP from the problem setting to the decision sequence, and a cognitive approach to the policy process to identify the internal and external factors that led to its genesis. We show that the PESP was rapidly adopted because of the particular domestic context, plus several internal and exogenous factors. First, deforestation was widely acknowledged and forestry incentive instruments already existed as did consolidated forestry organisations and institutions. Second, compromises were reached between leading actors in a context in which the forestry sector interest group was the most powerful. Third, public subsidies were banned in the framework of an international agreement on trade while the international carbon market offered new opportunities. The key elements of the governance of the Costa Rican PESP, such as its scope, nature and decision structure, reflect the existing balance of power between interest groups from different sectors (forestry, conservation, agriculture) involved in the management of forested areas. We conclude that analysing the policy process is important to understand PES governance and to promote sound PES development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In biodiversity rich agriculture–forest moasic landscapes in south-western Ethiopia, the production of coffee and food crops, including guarding them from forest-dwelling mammals, requires a high input of labour, which is supplied partly by children. Through field observations and interviews with smallholders, we studied the extent of children's participation in coffee production and food crop guarding, its impact on school attendance and implications for sustainable development. The findings revealed that the extent of children's participation in such work is correlated with the level of household's income and residential location, i.e. near versus far from forests or in coffee versus non-coffee areas. Child labour and school absenteeism linked to coffee production and crop guarding are widespread problems. Some of the measures taken to mitigate the problem of school absenteeism were coercive and posed threats to poor households. The paper concludes that child work in coffee production and crop protection is at the cost of school attendance for many children, which represents a critical social justice issue and a trade-off with the economic and environmental values of the forest. Reducing poverty would likely mitigate the problem of child labour and school absenteeism and promote synergistic development in the region. • Placing studies on child labour and schooling within specific social-ecological contexts will likely generate better understanding and policy outcomes. • A comparative analysis of child labour mobilisation for coffee production and food crop guarding exposes a negative link between biodiversity conservation and school attendance. • Coercive measures to mitigate child labour may worsen the situation of vulnerable families who should rather be provided with targeted economic support. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The way vegetation is officially named, classified, and identified has critical implications for ecosystems and biodiversity conservation. Yet little attention is given to how such issues hinder the efficacy of laws mandating environmental conservation on private land. In the Brazilian Amazon where half of the land is now already under private tenure or is available for future land-uses, differences in vegetation mapping and interpretation directly affect the level of protection in private rural properties, especially in transition areas where forest and savanna areas intermingle. Since Brazil's Native Vegetation Protection Law (NVPL) attaches a higher percentage of protection to forest-located properties, landowners may be tempted to use conflicting mappings and different vegetation classifications to claim their properties are located in areas other than forests to reduce their conservation requirements. In this paper, we compare three official vegetation databases and examine different law interpretation scenarios to assess the extent to which the level of private conservation may fluctuate. We found a difference of up to 430,000 km2 of protected vegetation (an area the size of Iraq) according to the database and vegetation characteristics chosen. This technical ambiguity may lead to make additional deforestation legal or reduce sharply the amount of vegetation to be restored for these areas, if left unaddressed. Clarifying the database and criteria used to define forest is critical, especially as Brazilian states may make different choices in that regard, and cases in which loopholes are exploited occurred in the recent past. Given the importance of this region for global biodiversity conservation and climate, we highlight the urgent need to: (1) support additional research to clarify vegetation characteristics and location; (2) agree on a harmonized methodology to determine forests for NVPL implementation, and (3) explore alternative criteria for defining forests when databases conflict. • Accurate native vegetation mapping is key to private forest conservation. • Uncertain vegetation classification weakens compliance with Brazil's forest law. • Study provides scenarios exploring the implications of multiple vegetation databases. • 430,000 square kilometers of the Brazilian Amazon are at risk of reduced protection. • Both deforestation and native vegetation restoration are affected by this. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyses the policy changes occurring in the forest and palm oil sectors of Sabah, Malaysian Borneo, through the lens of the transformational change concept. The aim is to first examine whether Sabah is transforming and, if so, to identify the determinants enabling or hindering the change. To determine if Sabah is transforming, we used two criteria: - (i) an ambitious change in the policy framework, that promotes forest conservation and sustainable use, and is moving away from business-as-usual activities; and (ii) the level of implementation of the policies that we identified as supporting transformational change. We found that Sabah very likely did intend to transform. We made this conclusion based on comparing changes in policies occurring in Sabah, and we decided if it is ambitious by primarily comparing Sabah's policies with other Malaysian states, the federal government, and internationally. We showed that: (i) Sabah decided to use voluntary international certification standards (private market instruments) like FSC and RSPO, while the other Malaysian states did not; (ii) they decided to protect more forest compared to national and international targets; and (iii) Sabah is an early mover as the state is one of the first in the world to adopt the RSPO Jurisdictional Approach. But intention needs to be followed by implementation, and this is where the state falls short. The policies in Sabah were not fully implemented because of the patronage system where the more powerful actors used their power to continue with business-as-usual activities, there is frequent political turnover in Sabah, and the state faced difficulty in meeting international standards. Our research shows that local leadership and a local transformational change coalition (civil society actively working in Sabah) mainly prompted the transformational change, although the promises of economic gains and better reputation also played a role. We conclude by emphasising the change must be made more compelling for political leaders, as part of a broader institutional structure, not only through the narrow focus on reducing deforestation but through the development of a more sustainable and equitable national economy, and that consumer countries should play a role in reducing pressures on forest by providing incentives to a state that manages its natural resources sustainably. • Sabah adopted a series of ambitious policy measures to move away from unsustainable exploitation of its forest resources. • One ambitious policy was the RSPO jurisdictional approach which if implemented, is transformational. • Sabah's implementation of transformational policies fell short because of the patronage system in the state. • Local leadership and civil society prompted the transformational change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental contingent valuation (CV) studies in a context of developing countries have been progressing in the past two decades. However, these studies are prone to biases due to their hypothetical nature and most of these studies lack appropriately designed and implemented CV survey. This paper carried out a systematic review of previous 36 forest CV studies conducted in the context of developing countries, focusing on two main objectives: (i) examine communities’ preference and willing to pay (WTP) for forest conservation in developing countries, and (ii) assess content and construct validity of the included studies, using the selected indicators from best practice guidelines recommended in literature. The overall annual mean WTP ranges from $0.01–75.36 and 7.17–94.34 man-days per household for monetary and labor time payment modes, respectively. The results reveal that WTP estimates slightly vary among individual studies within the same country, whereas, the estimates widely vary between countries. These imply that policy designs for forest conservation programs need to give emphasis to the local contexts and other relevant parameters. Moreover, the finding indicates that most of the CV studies included in this review are failed to document and report validity test fully and explicitly as per recommended in literature, despite the existing of some efforts to improve a quality of the studies. Thus, it is strongly suggested that future studies on the theme have to conduct, document and fully report validity test. The finding provides available evidences on accuracy of the prior CV forest studies that could inform policy/users in using the results for decision making.

Improving energy efficiency in industry is recognized as one of the most crucial actions for mitigating climate change. The lack of knowledge regarding energy end-use makes it difficult for companies to know in which processes the highest energy efficiency potential is located. Using a case study design, the paper provides a taxonomy for energy end-use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions on a process and energy carrier level. It can be seen that drying of wood is the largest energy using and GHG emitting process in the studied companies. The paper also investigates applied and potentially viable energy key performance indicators (KPIs). Suggestions for improving energy KPIs within the wood industry include separating figures for different wood varieties and different end-products and distinguishing between different drying kiln technologies. Finally, the paper presents the major energy saving and carbon mitigating measures by constructing conservation supply curves and marginal abatement cost curves. The energy saving potential found in the studied companies indicates that significant improvements might be achieved throughout the Swedish wood industry. Even though the scope of this paper is the Swedish wood industry, several of the findings are likely to be relevant in other countries with a prominent wood industry. • We present a review of the energy end-use of the Swedish wood industry. • We suggest a general taxonomy of energy end-use processes of the wood industry. • GHG emissions of wood industry processes is presented based on the novel taxonomy. • Currently applied energy KPIs for the wood industry are presented. • A novel proposal for new innovative energy KPIs is suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents four forest habitats from Valea Vâlsanului Reserve: R4109 Southeast Carpathian beech forests (Fagus sylvatica) with Symphytum cordatum; R 4206 Southeast Carpathians spruce forests (Picea abies) and fir (Abies alba) with Hieracium rotundatum; R 4401 Southeast Carpathians white alder forests (Alnus incana) with Telekia speciosa; R 4402 Geto -Dacian forests of hilly meadows of alder (Alnus glutinosa) with Stellaria nemorum. These habitats were characterized by the following elements: distribution in territory, structure, floristic composition, conservation status, potential threats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Retaining the option-to-harvest encourages people to cultivate forest stands on private land, and periodic purchases of the option keep the stand intact, thus contributing to a greater good. This paper develops and demonstrates the use of a real-option model to encourage the planting of new biologically-diverse forests, and to help conserve existing forests standing on private land. Payments for ecosystem services (PES) take several forms and several instruments and policies have been designed over the years. This study involves a detailed analysis of literature on PES and of various revenue streams generated by forest stands. It was observed that the option-to-harvest encouraged expansion and conservation of small-scale forests. The methodology adopted and product designed herein involves the purchase of the option-to-harvest at the beginning of each accounting period, especially by timber suppliers, with a view to preventing potentially steep declines in spot timber prices from the potentially excess supply. The incentive structure is simplified to include the interest foregone on the terminal value, reduced by the existential value derived from such delay. The real-option model employing bounded random walk projections is applied to a registered Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) project. Subject to the alternative use of the parcel of land, the option payments are found to represent 3.83-6.57 % of the value of stand conserved. Suitable institutional mechanisms would need to be developed to transfer the option payments to the growers, across large numbers of such projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The global community has recognized the importance of forests for biodiversity, and has prioritized the preservation of forest biodiversity and ecosystem functions through multiple multilateral agreements and processes such as the Convention on Biodiversity’s Aichi Targets and the Millennium Development Goals. The Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) provides one mechanism for tracking progress toward such goals in three particular areas: primary forest area, protected forest areas, and areas designated for the conservation of biodiversity. In this paper, we quantify current area and trends in forest areas designated for the conservation of biodiversity, protected forest areas, and primary forests by country and biome; and examine the association between total forest area and measures of protection, per-capita income, and population. The overall findings suggest that countries are increasingly protecting forests of ecological significance at the global scale (7.7% of forests were protected in 1990 rising to 16.3% in 2015), with a strong upward trend in protected areas in the tropical domain (from 12% in 1990 to 26.3% in 2015). However, primary forest area has declined by 2.5% globally and by 10% in the tropics over the period 1990–2015 (using data for countries that reported in all years). Given that many species in the tropics are endemic to primary forests, losses in that climatic domain continue to be of concern, although the rate of decline appears to be slowing. Using multiple regression analysis, we find that a 1% increase in protected area or area designated for biodiversity conservation within a country is associated with an increase in total forest area in that country of about 0.03% ( p < 0.05). A 1% within-country increase in population density and per capita GDP are associated with a decrease in forest area of about 0.2% ( p < 0.01) and an increase in forest area of about 0.08% ( p < 0.05) respectively. Our findings also indicate that, since FRA is used as one mechanism for tracking progress toward goals like the AICHI Biodiversity Targets, country correspondents may require additional assistance toward reporting on primary forest, protected forest, and biodiversity conservation statistics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Macrofungi constitute a group of the high-value forest resources worldwide. In this paper, we report species richness and composition of the macrofungi in sal (Shorea robusta) forests of mid-hill central Nepal, which were managed for 4–29 years by the local communities. The sal forests were rich in macrofungi (115 species) with Polyporaceae being the largest family followed by Clavariaceae. Saprotrophic fungi were more common than mycorrhizal species. The proportion of mycorrhiza was <40% of the total macrofungi species which might have indicated the deteriorated condition of the forests before the initiation of conservation management. However, the proportion of mycorrhizal species was slightly higher in the forests managed for >10 years than in the forests managed for short period. The species richness increased with increasing canopy and litter cover. Since silvicultural activities and resource utilization often have negative impacts to macrofungal diversity, these activities need to be optimized to keep balance between forest management and biodiversity conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Atlantic Forest is a global hotspot of biodiversity that may be on the verge of ecological collapse. Current changes in forest legislation have increased the debate concerning policy impacts on land-use and the consequences for biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services provision. This paper evaluates the impact of three environmental policy options (National Forest Act from 1965-NFA65, Business as Usual-BAU, National Forest Act from 2012-NFA12) on land-use patterns and ecosystem services in the southern Atlantic Forest. InVEST (the Integrated Valuation of Environmental Services and Tradeoffs tool) was used to model ecosystem services. Synergies and tradeoffs between commodities, erosion regulation, carbon storage and habitat for biodiversity were assessed with the Spearman Correlation Test. The NFA65 produced the largest gains for forest ecosystem services, while BAU favored commodities expansion. The NFA12 approaches the baseline, contributing less to the provision of ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increasingly, international agreements, treaties, and conventions address tropical deforestation and specific causes of rainforest transformation. Such international regimes may aim to conserve natural forests or to support the exploitation of lands for a particular purpose, e.g. agricultural commodities. This paper’s goal is to map the international regime complex for rainforest transformation by identifying those global and regional regimes that are relevant for tropical rainforest transformation systems in Indonesia. The relevance of international regimes for rainforest transformation is assessed based on a novel methodology using two criteria: First, international regimes may be relevant in Indonesia because the core problem they address exists in Indonesia (problem dimension). Second, specific international regimes may be made relevant by the actions of specific actors and their coalitions in pursuit of their interests (actor dimension). To achieve the study’s goals we used (1) content analysis of international policy documents and treaty texts, (2) expert interviews with key informants in Indonesia, and (3) own field observations in current Indonesian land use politics. The results indicate that regimes dealing with biological diversity, climate change, trade in endangered species, wetland management, international tropical trade, illegal logging, Southeast Asian (ASEAN) forest and environment, the Asia Pacific free trade, and the southeast Asian rubber trade regime are relevant in both the problem and actor dimensions. The regimes concerned with desertification and international forestry research are relevant only in the actor dimension. In contrast, the following regimes are relevant only in the problem dimension: indigenous rights, forest certification, palm oil certification, agroforestry certification, and international rubber trade. We discuss our results considering global and regional regimes relevant to Indonesian rainforest transformation systems. We conclude that regimes relevant solely due to the engagement of domestic actors and not in respect of the problem dimension are unlikely to maintain their relevance in the long term. In the short term, however, they have the potential for creating substantial political benefits for the actors using them. In contrast, regimes with high problem relevance but low actor backing are unlikely to even enter the political agenda, and therefore will have only limited impact. This suggests that future research should consider that, whilst relevance in the problem dimension is necessary to establish regime influence, it alone does not suffice. We can expect global and regional regimes to have an influence only when powerful actors back them in their agenda setting, domestic policy formulation and actual implementation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of International Forestry Review is the property of Commonwealth Forestry Association and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Reconciling conservation and livelihoods is a concern wherever forests are important in local people's lives. We plead for engaging these people in survey activities to clarify what is important to them, as a first step in conservation planning. This will help to address their priorities and gain their guidance and support for interventions. This paper presents the results of such a survey with the community of Kwerba in Mamberamo, a remote and little known part of Indonesian Papua. Views and priorities were explored through interviews, scoring exercises, community mapping and a field survey. Whereas small gardens provided most staple food, culture and livelihoods were linked to the forest. People scored primary forest highest for nearly all use categories. Primary forest was particularly highly valued as a source of construction materials, ornaments and rituals, and as a hunting place. We developed a list of the overall most important plants and animals. Many natural resources were used, but few were commercially exploited. The community had rules to control access to certain areas and resources. Taboos to restrict access to sacred places were also maintained. Our evaluation identified opportunities to achieve conservation outcomes jointly with the Kwerba people. In follow-up activities, the community presented local government with a land-use plan for their territory. The government recognized the value of our approach and requested training to implement it more widely in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The sawmilling industry stores and measures logs in bark in order to maximise efficiency, quality conservation and preservation. Billing is based on the diameter under bark, estimated based on manual or automatic bark detection. Although an automatic system is desirable for the industry, existing systems like tracheid effect scanners, X-ray or computed tomography either do not work reliably during all seasons or are very cost-intensive. This paper presents an approach for automatic determination of diameter under bark based on a multi-sensor approach including shape data, colour image data and tracheid effect data using laser scanning. For 686 spruce (Picea abies) and 79 fir (Abies alba) logs, diameters under bark are estimated and compared to the diameter after machine debarking. Estimation errors are close to zero and are below ±10 mm for more than 94% of the logs. Influences of season or characteristics like bark beetle are small. Specialised algorithms for diameter estimation in the presence of snow or bark beetle might further improve the result at the cost of required extra manual input. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Copyright of Forestry Chronicle is the property of Canadian Institute of Forestry and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The high conservation value (HCV) concept, originally developed by the Forest Stewardship Council, has been widely incorporated outside the forestry sector into companies' supply chain assessments and responsible purchasing policies, financial institutions' investment policies, and numerous voluntary commodity standards. Many, if not most, of these newer applications relate to production practices that are likely to affect freshwater systems directly or indirectly, yet there is little guidance as to whether or how HCV can be applied to water bodies. We focus this paper on commodity standards and begin by exploring how prominent standards currently address both HCVs and freshwaters. We then highlight freshwater features of high conservation importance and examine how well those features are captured by the existing HCV framework. We propose a new set of freshwater 'elements' for each of the six values and suggest an approach for identifying HCV Areas that takes out-of-fence line impacts into account, thereby spatially extending the scope of existing methods to define HCVs. We argue that virtually any non-marine HCV assessment, regardless of the production sector, should be expanded to include freshwater values, and we suggest how to put those recommendations into practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using China as a case study, this paper explores the integrated regional ecological risk assessment of multiple stressors and multiple receptors on a large spatial scale. The objective is to provide scientific data to support ecological risk identification and prevention. To carry out this assessment, ten natural disasters were chosen as risk sources, and twenty-two ecosystems were chosen as risk receptors. The vulnerability of environment where these ecosystems existed was taken into consideration. Using the software platform GIS, the ecological risk of each disaster was evaluated, the integrated assessment for all disasters was compiled, and the integrated risk of different ecosystems was obtained. All results were shown in assessment maps. The results show that forty-five percent of the ecosystems' areas in China face high or medium ecological risks. This result indicates that the establishment of ecosystem protection and ecological risk prevention mechanisms in China is still a long-term, difficult task, requiring the rational use and conservation of forests, meadows, farmland, wetlands, and other ecosystems alike is of great necessity. The uncertainty analysis of risk assessment using the Monte Carlo Simulation method demonstrated the results to be reliable and credible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Following intensive human land use over millennia, European forest ecosystems record among the largest values of deforestation globally. This puts a premium on European ancient woodland, which has existed in the landscape minimally over several centuries. Ancient woodland in the UK was quantified in the Ancient Woodland Inventory (AWI). In cross-checking AWI sites in Scotland, it came to our attention that a proportion of ‘Class 3’ woodlands, which are thought to be of recent origin (regenerated since the nineteenth century), retain scattered tree symbols. This paper quantifies the degree to which Class 3 AWI sites may correspond to areas of scattered trees or open growth woodland. We show that a significant number (c. 50%) of Class 3 sites appear to have continuity of tree/woodland habitat; this may be particularly important for interpreting the distribution of ecological guilds such as tree-dependent epiphytic lichens and invertebrates. The study serves to re-emphasise that (i) technological limits and priorities of map makers, (ii) value systems of historical geographers, and (iii) biology of species, should be carefully considered and aligned during ecological research, so that potential anomalies, for example, the continuous existence of open structured woodland, can be fully recognised during application of systems such as the AWI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

National Parks in Mexico are home to small communities. Whereas productive activities are by definition prohibited within park limits, restoration and conservation practices are encouraged. One way to benefit the inhabitants of these parks is to promote conservation practices that can be productive at the same time. This paper describes and evaluates the practice of regular pruning of Abies religiosa (HBK) in the Cofre de Perote National Park as both a measure to prevent forest fires and a means to obtain the raw material for the manufacturing of Christmas wreaths. Under the guidance of our university research team, over a period of 3 years, local women pruned trees over a total area of 36 ha and used part of the pruning waste (2.71 %) to make the wreaths. The income generated from pruning and from sale of the wreaths contributes significantly to household expenses. We describe the collaboration between the local Women's Group, the academic team, a federal government agency and the local authorities. The study concludes that the laws regulating national parks in Mexico should specifically stress the importance of allowing productive activities compatible with conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Quantifying post-fire effects in a forested landscape is important to ascertain burn severity, ecosystem recovery and post-fire hazard assessments and mitigation planning. Reporting of such post-fire effects assumes significance in fire-prone countries such as USA, Australia, Spain, Greece and Portugal where prescribed burns are routinely carried out. This paper describes the use of Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) to estimate and map change in the forest understorey following a prescribed burn. Eighteen descriptive metrics are derived from bi-temporal TLS which are used to analyse and visualise change in a control and fire-altered plot. Metrics derived are Above Ground Height-based (AGH) percentiles and heights, point count and mean intensity. Metrics such as AGH50change, mean AGHchange and point countchange are sensitive enough to detect subtle fire-induced change (28%-52%) whilst observing little or no change in the control plot (0-4%). A qualitative examination with field measurements of the spatial distribution of burnt areas and percentage area burnt also show similar patterns. This study is novel in that it examines the behaviour of TLS metrics for estimating and mapping fire induced change in understorey structure in a single-scan mode with a minimal fixed reference system. Further, the TLS-derived metrics can be used to produce high resolution maps of change in the understorey landscape. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Establishing legal protection for forest areas is the most common policy used to limit forest loss. This article evaluates the effectiveness of seven Indonesian forest protected areas introduced between 1999 and 2012. Specifically, we explore how the effectiveness of these parks varies over space. Protected areas have mixed success in preserving forest, and it is important for conservationists to understand where they work and where they do not. Observed differences in the estimated treatment effect of protection may be driven by several factors. Indonesia is particularly diverse, with the landscape, forest and forest threats varying greatly from region to region, and this diversity may drive differences in the effectiveness of protected areas in conserving forest. However, the observed variation may also be spurious and arise from differing degrees of bias in the estimated treatment effect over space. In this paper, we use a difference-in-differences approach comparing treated observations and matched controls to estimate the effect of each protected area. We then distinguish the true variation in protected area effectiveness from spurious variation driven by several sources of estimation bias. Based on our most flexible method that allows the data generating process to vary across space, we find that the national average effect of protection preserves an additional 1.1% of forest cover; however the effect of individual parks range from a decrease of 3.4% to an increase of 5.3% and the effect of most parks differ from the national average. Potential biases may affect estimates in two parks, but results consistently show Sebangau National Park is more effective while two parks are substantially less able to protect forest cover than the national average. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents floristic and geo-botanical characteristics of rare forest ecosystems of the south of Western Siberia – spruce forests on the site of the Ob river ancient bed within the modern Bolshaya Sogra within the boundaries of the state natural reserve ‘Kislukhinsky’ (Altai region). Spruce forests here are at the edge of their spread in the West Siberian Plain conditions. There are over 300 species of vascular plants found in these spruce forests. Among them are plants that are typical of the mountain taiga associations of Russian Altai, as well as orchids, which have high species diversity. Spruce forest set of associations is also varied. The uniqueness of the described communities to the south of Western Siberia, the large number of rare and endangered plant species listed in the Red Books of different ranks, as well as the boreal forest species complex rare to the lowland wooded steppe, which has a relict character, all served as the basis for allocating a special protection area in the ‘Kislukhinsky’ reserve and attributing the studied spruce forests to the forests of high conservation value. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Copyright of Forestry Chronicle is the property of Canadian Institute of Forestry and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This paper investigates the spaces for participation that have been created by readiness preparations launched in connection with the international initiative “Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation” (REDD+) in Colombia and Costa Rica. I analyse the emergence of these spaces and who is leading the process in each country. My findings indicate that in Costa Rica, the public sector is leading preparation activities and creating the public spaces for participation in REDD to which private actors are invited. In Colombia on the other hand, NGOs, development assistance agencies and other private actors are leading the process and the state is the invited actor. I identify four factors that determine the scope of different actors’ possibilities to participate in the REDD+ spaces. These are (a) control of key resources, (b) ideological affinity, (c) the creation and dissemination of information and knowledge, and (d) the creation of norms to validate REDD+ pilot initiatives. The separation between these factors is not clear-cut and consequently they reinforce each other at different levels. The research presented here contributes to a better understanding of the implications that national REDD+ politics may have in the future functioning of the programme. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase (CAD) catalyzes the key step in the lignin monomer biosynthesis pathway, but little is known about CADs in larch (Larix olgensis). Larch is one of the most important conifer plantation species and is used worldwide for reforestation and paper making. However, the presence of lignin is a significant barrier in the conversion of plant biomass to bioethanol. In the current study, 240 individuals from the Northeast Forest University provenance progeny trial population were evaluated, and 47 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were identified in the CAD gene. We used a candidate gene-based association mapping approach to identify CAD gene allelic variants that were associated with growth and wood property traits in L. olgensis. We found that LoCAD harbors high single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) diversity (πT = 0.00622 and ϑW = 0.00646). The results of an association analysis indicated that nine SNPs and six haplotypes were significantly associated with wood property and growth traits, explaining between 1.35% and 18.4% of the phenotypic variance. There were strong associations between SNP (g.590G > T) and SNP (g.1184A > T) in LoCAD. These SNPs might represent two quantitative trait nucleotides that are important for the analysis of lignin content. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forestry issues and challenges in terms of ecosystem conservation and management has been a debatable topic over the years. Protected area such as biosphere reserves, national parks and wildlife sanctuaries are facing unpredictable pressure of global issues such as environmental degradation, biodiversity loss, climate change, and raw material supply. Using the Nokrek National Park and Biosphere Reserve forest ecosystem in the Himalaya region as an example, this research focused on governance, economical, and technical situation that shape and improve forest management. Effective local institutions promotes biodiversity maintenance and livelihoods, and forest management requires information on status and condition of forest, therefore, emphasis put to describe threats causing loss of biodiversity, current issues and future challenges in Himalaya region. Review studies and field data indicate the study area is rich in wild flora and fauna, and act as homelands of Achik (Garo) tribe. This paper presented a framework of forest assessments and monitoring, and for discussions about ways to improve forest conservation and management that achieve environmental objectives, and at the same time promote local and national development, and contribute to sustainable local livelihoods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses the factors responsible for the dependence of local communities on the forest resources of Melghat Tiger Reserve in Maharashtra and possible steps that can be taken to reduce this dependence to make it sustainable. Melghat was declared a Tiger Reserve in 1973 and covers an area of 1597 km2. The area is inhabited by tribals and non-tribals and is under anthropogenic pressures due to extraction of natural resources for subsistence by a large number of people and livestock. There were 61 revenue villages located within the tiger reserve with a human population of more than 25000 and a livestock population of more than 26000. While 69% of the households were tribal households the remaining 31% were non-tribal households, mostly agropastoralists. The local people in the protected area had subsistence forest-based economies and were therefore dependent on the forest resources for their sustenance throughout the year. The level and nature of dependence was found to be determined both by the lifestyle of the people as well as the degree of accessibility of the protected area from urban and semi-urban areas. Economic dependence was the result of "lack of alternatives" either due to "non-availability" or due to "lack of purchasing power". Direct economic dependence of the local communities was for fuel wood, non-timber forest produce (NTFPs), timber, bamboo, water and pasturing of cattle. While the tribals largely practiced subsistence agriculture and mostly worked as labour, the agro-pastoralists were engaged in dairying activities. Socio-economic data were collected through household interviews in villages located within the protected area using open and closed-ended questionnaires. A total of 243 households (>20%) were sampled of which >50% were tribal households, >70% were landless, marginal or small landholders, and >80% families owned livestock. The creation of the tiger reserve brought about significant changes in the dimension and equations of dependence. For local communities it translated in loss of economic opportunities and benefits which they traditionally derived. This has resulted in negative attitudes towards the forest department due to increased human-wildlife conflict bringing considerable strain on park-people relationships. Major management issues that need to be addressed are- dependence of local communities resulting in conflicts with the objectives of conservation and negative attitudes of the people towards forest department; inadequate coordination between forest department and district administration and other institutions/agencies working in the area and exploring employment opportunities especially for 8% of the families who are without land and livestock. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Biotropica is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Appropriation of public lands associated with agricultural frontier expansion is a longstanding occurrence in the Amazon that has resulted in a highly skewed land-tenure structure in spite of recent state efforts to recognize tenure rights of indigenous people and smallholders living in or nearby forests. Growing concerns to reduce environmental impacts from agricultural development have motivated state governments to place greater attention on sustainable land management and forest conservation. This paper assesses the political and institutional conditions shaping tenure security and land appropriation in lowland Bolivia and the State of Pará in Brazil, and their links with environmental governance. The two cases show that clarifying and securing tenure rights is considered as the cornerstone for improving environmental governance. Thus, much attention has been given to the recognition of indigenous people and smallholder rights and to legalization of large-scale estates in agricultural frontiers, which have in turn influenced emerging conservation and environmental governance approaches. While policy frameworks share similar goals in the two cases, contrasting implementation approaches have been adopted: more agrarian in lowland Bolivia and more conservationist in the State of Pará. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]