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Agricultural activity is a worldwide taphonomic process and can present unique challenges in the recovery of buried remains. Previous research has been mostly within the realm of site formation processes of archeological sites utilizing only surface material. This research expands upon the previous research by incorporating the distribution of subsurface material by the use of archeological excavation techniques. An experiment was conducted utilizing juvenile pig (Sus scrofa) skeletons buried in relative anatomical position at two different depths (15 cm below the surface [cmbs] and 22 cmbs). The burials were then subjected to different intervals of mechanical plowing: one, three, five, seven, or 10 plow passes. The skeletal material was recovered using pedestrian survey followed by hand excavation and screening of all sediments. This research shows that there is a significant relationship between the degree of plowing and the distance skeletal material is distributed and the percentage of material recovered undamaged., (© 2016 American Academy of Forensic Sciences.)

A sample of 49 cases of cemetery remains received at the Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, Massachusetts (OCME-MA), in Boston was compared with published taphonomic profiles of cemetery remains. The present sample is composed of a cross section of typical cases in this region that ultimately are derived from modern to historical coffin burials and get turned over to or seized by law enforcement. The present sample was composed of a large portion of isolated remains, and most were completely skeletonized. The most prevalent taphonomic characteristics included uniform staining (77.6%), coffin wear (46.9%), and cortical Exfoliation (49.0%). Other taphonomic changes occurring due to later surface exposure of cemetery remains included subaerial weathering, animal gnawing, algae formation, and excavation marks. A case of one set of skeletal remains associated with coffin artifacts and cemetery offerings that was recovered from transported cemetery fill is also presented., (© 2015 American Academy of Forensic Sciences.)

Human fetal skeletal elements of different gestational ages were screened with multiple mesh sizes (6.4 mm [1/4 inch], 3.2 mm [1/8 inch], 2.0 mm, and 1.0 mm) to determine their recovery rates. All remains were previously macerated, and no significantly damaged elements were used. The 6.4 mm mesh allowed a large loss of elements (63.2% overall), including diagnostic elements, while no diagnostic elements were lost when the 1 mm mesh (0.2%) was used. When using the 3.2 mm mesh, 16.2% of the bones were lost, including some diagnostic elements (primarily tooth crowns), while 7.5% were lost using the 2.0 mm mesh. The authors recommend that the potential loss of information incurred when utilizing larger mesh sizes be taken into consideration when planning recovery methods where fetal remains may be encountered and that a minimum of 1.0 mm mesh be utilized in recovery contexts known to include fetal remains., (© 2015 American Academy of Forensic Sciences.)

Given the recent growth in the field, some students in forensic anthropology may find it difficult to devise an affordable, suitable, and ideally publishable thesis topic. Taphonomic projects often can fill this role, as many do not require a large budget, are experimental in nature, thus giving students greater control over the data that they will collect, and on topics that have not received large amounts of research. The author presents a list of possible topics primarily in the field of forensic taphonomy and aimed at the MS/MA thesis level, although some proposed projects are larger or could be adapted for a PhD dissertation. The topics include taphonomic effects associated with carnivores, rodents, birds, reptiles, and plants and subaerial weathering; marine environments; thermal alteration; ritual and anatomical activity; cemetery and non-cemetery burials; bone detection; decomposition; and taphonomic procedures. The suggested topics also include factors that may make them more difficult to explore and information on which venues may be the most appropriate. The author hopes to promote taphonomic research in multiple subfields and encourage graduate students to pursue publication of their results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research examined the effects that the variables of burial depth and presence of plastic wrapping had on the decomposition rate of fetal pig (Sus scrofa) remains in a New England environment. The decomposition of 56 fetal pigs was observed in four independent variable groups: 20 cm depth unwrapped, 20 cm wrapped, 60 cm unwrapped, and 60 cm wrapped, with exhumation at months 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 12, and 18. The authors hypothesized that the rate of decay would be slower for wrapped remains and/or for remains at a greater burial depth. Analysis of these remains consisted of preburial and postburial mass, adipocere coverage, skeletal exposure, and decomposition quantified as Total Body Score (TBS). The difference between preburial and postburial mass was reported as a loss percentage to account for varying preburial masses. Wrapping was a significant influencer of mass loss percentage, with p = 0.0298 but not for the TBS, with p = 0.17565. Burial depth did not have a significant effect on either mass loss percentage or TBS, with p = 0.1956 and 0.08969, respectively. This study suggests that wrapping has a greater influence on decomposition patterns than burial depth in this environment, particularly the mass loss percentage. It is suggested that there are limitations with the use of TBS in Postmortem Interval (PMI) estimation, such as variable burial conditions and body characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In anthropological analysis of burned bone, the presence of a white heat line (WHL) aids in determining a bone's physical condition prior to burning, distinguishing between those burned fleshed or wet versus dry, making this thermal signature an important source of information regarding the relative timing of burning. While the relationship between WHLs and a bone's physical condition has been studied, there is a lack of research concerning WHL chemical composition. The present study assessed the composition of WHLs that form on burned bone using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), including the effects of soft tissue and retention of bone's organic material on a WHL's development and appearance. Experimental remains consisted of isolated bones from pig (Sus scrofa), sheep (Ovis aries), white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), and elk (Cervus elaphus) in five physical conditions: fleshed, defleshed/very wet, partially wet, dry, and dry/soaked. Chemical composition was analyzed using spectral peak heights of the carbonate (CO3) v3 (1415 cm-1), phosphate (PO4) v3 (1035 cm-1), and amide I (1660 cm-1) vibrational bands. WHLs formed on 8 of 16 bones burned fleshed (50%) compared to 8 of 27 defleshed/very wet (29.6%). The partially wet, dry, and dry/ soaked sample groups did not develop a WHL. Results indicate WHLs that formed on fleshed bone contained an increased amount of CO3, PO4, and amide I versus unburned controls. In contrast, WHLs that formed on defleshed/very wet bone contained decreased amounts. Additional research is needed to explore the exact mechanisms causing the formation of WHLs and their physical appearance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most studies of saw marks have focused on morphological characteristics and their utility in identifying saws suspected to have been utilized in cases of criminal dismemberment. The present study examined the extent to which metric analysis may be used to correlate saw blade measurements with minimum kerf widths (MKWs). A sample of 56 partially defleshed white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) long bones was utilized as proxy for human remains. The long bones were cut using a variety of commercially available saws, including 11 manual‐powered and 5 mechanical‐powered saws. A total of 496 false start kerfs (FSKs) were created. Two experiments were performed, with the first test examining the MKWs of FSKs produced on specimens that were restrained using a bench vise, while the second test analyzed the MKWs of FSKs produced on minimally restrained specimens. Statistical analysis using Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM) indicated a positive relationship between saw blade width (mm) and MKW, with blade width (p < 0.001) and the overall difference between the mechanical‐ and manual‐powered saws (p = 0.029) tested, reaching statistical significance. A comparison of MKWs produced using manual‐powered saws on restrained and minimally restrained bones suggests that restraint condition (p = 0.009) has a statistically significant effect. In comparisons of MKWs to blade widths, the average ratio for mechanical‐powered saws is 18.7% greater than the average ratio for manual‐powered saws. While the mode of the ratios was 1.42, thus supporting the general rule that MKW does not exceed 1.5 times blade width, multiple individual ratios did surpass 1.5. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the analysis of taphonomic effects that have occurred to osseous remains, it is often necessary to interpret multiple overlapping changes. Individual taphonomic effects can be isolated from each other, and these follow rules of relative timing, whereby earlier or later effects can be determined. These rules are similar to those of archaeological and geological stratigraphy, from which the basic concepts of superposition and other physical relationships are derived. Taphonomic effects can be caused by multiple processes associated with early phases (death, decomposition, and scavenging of fresh remains) or with later phases (staining of bone surfaces, breakdown of the bone, and scavenging upon dry remains). The relative sequencing of the taphonomic effects to a set of remains can be used to reconstruct their postmortem history and to separate human activity, including trauma, from scavengers and other biological agencies. The four laws presented here pertain to (1) superposition, (2) positional aspect continuity, (3) original continuity, and (4) succession of changes. These laws can be applied more broadly in some archaeological/paleoanthropological situations, but the specific examples used to illustrate them here come from forensic settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human skeletal remains are frequently recovered from marine environments, where they have undergone months or years of immersion, and decomposition stage is no longer a possible method from which to estimate the postmortem submergence interval (PMSI). Over these longer PMSIs, a common taphonomic alteration that forms is the wearing and rounding of surfaces from marine abrasion, caused by repeated agitation in sediment or against rocks. Little is known about the timing of these changes and how to measure or score the degree of alteration. In a laboratory setting, multiple dry, defleshed bones of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) were agitated in saltwater for varying intervals with abrasive sediment (1, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 days) and with rocks (5 and 12 days) using a laboratory tumbling device. These were compared to human remains cases from the Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, Boston, MA that had been in the Atlantic Ocean for known intervals. A five-stage (0-4) marine abrasion scoring system was devised for the taphonomic analysis of forensic cases from marine environments to allow for direct comparison among cases. A high degree of correlation between abrasion stage and known PMSI was detected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hacking trauma is prevalent in forensic cases involving genocide and dismemberment, but research into the identification of this type of trauma is lacking. The present study examines characteristics of hacking and blunt force skeletal trauma in order to determine if there is a point at which blunt force trauma becomes distinguishable from hacking trauma. Ten implements with a range of blade angles (i.e., the striking surface of the implement) were used in conjunction with a controlled‐force hacking device to impact 100 limb bones of white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Observations of the trauma included the occurrence and degree of fragmentation, the entrance widths of the impacts, and composite scores of six hacking characteristics, especially the distinctive V‐shaped kerf. ANOVA tests and regression analyses were used to assess the relationships between these characteristics and the blade angles. A significant relationship (p‐value = 0.011) was found between the composite hacking scores and the blade angles, indicating that blunt force and hacking trauma can be distinguished. The entrance widths of the impacts exhibited a significant relationship with the blade angles (p‐value = 0.037). There was also a significant relationship between the visibility of a V‐shaped kerf in the bones (p‐value = 0.003), with visibility decreasing around the 60° blade angle. These data should assist in establishing guidelines to differentiate hacking and blunt force skeletal trauma in cases where the implement is on a spectrum between sharp and blunt. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research (Pokines et al. 2018) examined the success rates of search through leaf litter for older juvenile- to adult-sized bones in a New England forest environment. Individual element size class had a significant effect upon recovery rate. Using the same experimental conditions, the present research examined the recovery rates for infant-sized bones and adult-sized teeth. Ten simulated outdoor scenes were sown with dispersed, skeletonized, infant-sized pig (Sus scrofa) bones of different types and pig teeth comparable in size to adult human. Processing was executed through a hand-and-knee crawl while picking through and collecting all leaf litter by hand and then emptying it onto a tarp, where the effects of searching the same leaf litter twice were examined. Recovery rates from primary search ranged from 62.4% to 74.7% per trial with an overall rate of 68.8%, which was significantly lower than the overall recovery rate of 76.7% for the previous research. Secondary search recovered an additional 17.9% of bone, leading to an overall recovery rate of 86.7%. Teeth were recovered through primary search at an overall rate of 38.0%, with an additional 12.0% recovered through secondary search. Significant differences in recovery rate for the infant-sized remains based upon bone size were noted. Forensic archaeologists are cautioned that full recovery cannot be assumed in these situations. Careful primary searching by hand combined with secondary searching may mitigate the loss of evidence in some situations and should be considered for forensic search protocols, especially where infant skeletal remains are suspected to be present. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In mass disaster situations, human remains are often subjected to extreme conditions, and identification by traditional anthropological means may need to be supplemented by DNA analysis. In extreme cases, bones and teeth are potentially the only viable source of DNA. The present research evaluates the correlation between the taphonomic state and the quantity and quality of nuclear DNA obtained from thermally altered teeth. This study used an extraction procedure involving the use of a demineralization extraction buffer followed by concentration and purification. After heat exposure, each tooth was assigned a color value of 1 to 5 to score the state of combustion of the sample. The results indicate a strong correlation between the quantity of DNA recovered, the quality of the DNA obtained, and the color value. The highest recovery rates and lowest degradation index values were obtained from teeth assigned a color value of 1 (unaltered beige) or 2 (yellow to orange). These teeth were exposed to room temperature, 100°C, or 200°C. At temperatures exceeding 200°C, the amount of DNA recovered drastically decreased or was undetected, indicating that DNA processing of thermally altered specimens should be limited to samples with beige, yellow, or orange post-burn coloration. Samples that are brown, black, or gray in coloration (carbonizing to calcining) will likely provide low or undetectable DNA quantification results and little information as to the identity of the remains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human skeletal remains in outdoor forensic sites often are dispersed from their point of initial deposition, making locating isolated bones difficult. Forested areas in particular may obscure remains, as bones stained from soft-tissue and leaf-litter decomposition may blend in with the forest floor or be hidden by understory. Wide skeletal dispersal presents other problems for searchers, including the difficulty in keeping track of which areas have been searched and maintaining proper spacing of searchers to prevent gapping. Little is known about success rates when searching for dispersed skeletal elements and the effects of searcher spacing, searching the same area twice, type of skeletal element, and understory growth. In order to test recovery rates searching through forested areas, isolated postcranial elements of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and crania of pigs (Sus scrofa) were laid out randomly in a large grid system and searched for. Overall recovery rates for n = 500 elements were 84.0% on the first pass-through and a cumulative total of 90.0% after the second pass-through, with 10.0% missed after both. Significant differences in recovery rates based upon bone type were noted, but no significant difference was found based upon searcher spacing (1 m vs. 2 m) or understory density (low vs. medium). Forensic archaeologists should note that even with careful searching under controlled conditions, exposed surface skeletal elements can be missed, a concern that is likely amplified under real field search conditions. To maximize remains detection, forensic search protocols should include narrow searcher spacing and double passes through search areas wherever possible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Criminal dismemberment is accomplished using a variety of tools and frequently used to dispose or facilitate the transport of human remains in an attempt to hinder forensic investigation. The present research examined features that may differentiate cuts made in bone by various commercially available reciprocating saw blades. The partial limbs of adult white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) were used as a proxy for human remains and were cut using five reciprocating saw blades and a hand‐powered hacksaw. The resulting false start and complete kerfs were examined macroscopically and microscopically. Kerf characteristics in which significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) between reciprocating blades were noted including minimum kerf width, kerf false start shape, presence of cut surface drift and harmonics, exit chipping size, and striation regularity. Interblade differences generally reflect class characteristics previously established for hand‐powered blades. The present research may aid in the identification of reciprocating saw use in forensic contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Criminal dismemberment is accomplished using a variety of tools and frequently used to dispose or facilitate the transport of human remains in an attempt to hinder forensic investigation. The present research examined features that may differentiate cuts made in bone by various commercially available reciprocating saw blades. The partial limbs of adult white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) were used as a proxy for human remains and were cut using five reciprocating saw blades and a hand‐powered hacksaw. The resulting false start and complete kerfs were examined macroscopically and microscopically. Kerf characteristics in which significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) between reciprocating blades were noted including minimum kerf width, kerf false start shape, presence of cut surface drift and harmonics, exit chipping size, and striation regularity. Interblade differences generally reflect class characteristics previously established for hand‐powered blades. The present research may aid in the identification of reciprocating saw use in forensic contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many outdoor forensic scenes are located in forested areas, and these often require searching through leaf litter to find locally dispersed skeletal remains. Little is known about success rates when processing a scene in this manner, in comparison with previous research on success rates of bone recovery from screening excavated sediments through different size meshes. In order to test recovery rates when searching through leaf litter, ten simulated outdoor scenes sown with dispersed, skeletonized, older juvenile pig (Sus scrofa) bones of different types were processed in succession. All bones had variable brown staining from previous decomposition and burial to include the effects of natural camouflaging typical to forensic scenes in this environment. Their sizes were comparable to intact human juvenile remains or partial adult remains, with some overlap with adult human remains. Processing was executed through a hand-and-knee crawl while picking through all leaf litter by hand and dumping it off-site, leaving behind topsoil with all discovered bones marked by pin flags. Recovery rates ranged from 68.1% to 81.9% per trial, with an overall recovery rate of 76.7% (n = 853 elements). Significant differences in recovery rate based upon bone size category were noted, and a significant downward trend for recovery rates was noted over time, indicating that cumulative searcher fatigue may have played a role. Forensic archaeologists are cautioned that full recovery cannot be assumed in these situations. Careful searching by hand is recommended to mitigate the loss of evidence and should be integrated into all forensic search protocols. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The role of small scavengers (typically birds and small mammals) of large vertebrate remains in terrestrial environments is an under-researched aspect of forensic taphonomy. The present research examined the role of small scavengers in a wooded environment in Massachusetts. A sample of fresh, mostly defleshed pig (Sus scrofa) femora was placed in heavy mesh wire cages that restricted access by the largest scavengers but allowed full access by smaller scavengers. The bones were monitored with game cameras for a four-month period from 8 June through 7 October 2016, and bones were replaced frequently. A minimum of 8 bird and 10 mammalian taxa were detected scavenging the remains, including multiple Passerines, turkey vulture (Cathartes aura), mustelids, raccoon (Procyon lotor), Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana), and rodents including eastern gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) and chipmunk (Tamias striatus). Gnawing damage to bone was accrued by fisher (Martes pennanti), but the remaining scavengers only consumed adhering soft tissue. The small scavenger guild in this region is diverse and has a high potential for involvement in the scavenging of human skeletal remains in exposed terrestrial environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

How a set of osseous remains under forensic anthropological examination is analyzed and processed and reaches its ultimate disposition is largely guided by the taphonomic source of the remains, including environmental and temporal factors. The environment from which the remains came, whether largely natural or artificial, alters the remains in ways that allow for the determination of their origin and subsequent taphonomic histories. Remains are also subject to temporal jurisdiction, in that older remains may be forwarded to other agencies, including state archaeological offices, for final disposition. The present research examines and compares the taphonomic alterations that are formed on bones from multiple sources that are commonly received in medical examiner settings: terrestrial, marine, cemetery, trophy, and former anatomical teaching specimens. Each of these sources has unique taphonomic alterations associated with it, and careful examination can elucidate the history of a set of remains, even where their environment has changed, including repurposing for ritual or other uses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cranial remains retained from fallen enemies are commonly referred to as 'trophy skulls,' and many such crania were acquired as souvenirs by U.S. servicemembers during WWII and the Vietnam conflict. These remains increasingly have become the subject of forensic anthropological analysis as their possessors, typically veterans or their relatives, try to discard or repatriate them. The present research uses a qualitative analytical approach to review 24 cases of reported trophy skulls (14 previously unpublished cases and 10 from the literature) to determine which perimortem and postmortem characteristics are most useful for generating a taphonomic profile. Overall, the taphonomic signature of trophy remains includes traits relating to acquisition and preparation, ornamental display, and subsequent curation. Contextual evidence and the biological profile also are considered when determining the possible origin of human cranial remains as a trophy skull. Thorough taphonomic analysis will aid in identifying these types of remains as trophy skulls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a marker of degeneration within the skeleton, frequently associated with age. This study quantifies the correlation between OA and age-at-death and investigates the utility of shoulder OA as a forensic age indicator using a modern North American sample of 206 individuals. Lipping, surface porosity, osteophyte formation, eburnation, and percentage of joint surface affected were recorded on an ordinal scale and summed to create composite scores that were assigned a specific phase. Spearman's correlation indicated a positive relationship between each composite score and age (right shoulder = 0.752; left shoulder = 0.734). Transition analysis revealed a tendency toward earlier degeneration of the right shoulder. Bayesian statistics generated phase-related age estimates based on highest posterior density regions. Best age estimates were into the seventh decade at the 90th and 50th percentile. The proposed method supplements traditional techniques by providing age estimates beyond a homogenous 50+ age cohort. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rodent and lagomorph species have a worldwide distribution and have the potential to alter remains from forensic cases by gnawing soft tissue and bones and through dispersal. The present research compiled metric data on the incisors widths of all rodent and lagomorph species whose ranges include Massachusetts, U.S.A., to compare their sizes to gnawing damage found on 17 cases of human remains from the Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, Boston, MA. Data on gnawing maximum striation widths also were collected from live laboratory, zoo, and wild specimens. Gnawing damage on the forensic cases could be attributed only to a particular size class of rodent or lagomorph, and identification to a particular species based on gnawing damage alone may be possible only in relatively rare cases. Multiple species examined here have broad distribution ranges, so their taphonomic alterations may impact bones from forensic cases throughout large portions of North America. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human skeletal remains that had originally been prepared and used as anatomical teaching specimens are sometimes mistaken for cases of forensic interest and are turned over for forensic anthropological analysis. The present sample (24 cases) was analyzed for the overall taphonomic patterns that may be useful in establishing their origins. Findings consist of multiple characteristics that, when considered as a pattern, are unique to anatomical teaching specimens and include mounting hardware, drilling, sectioning, plastic reconstruction, and labeling. Other taphonomic changes observed in this sample, but not unique to anatomical specimens, include patina formation, shelf wear, and the repurposing of the bones for decoration or display. The overall taphonomic characteristics should be used in conjunction with ancestry estimation and contextual information to help designate unknown cases as former anatomical teaching specimens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This forensic case report describes the taphonomic effects of woodland vole (Microtus pinetorum) upon a set of skeletonized human remains recovered in Massachusetts, USA. Remains of an individual of this rodent species were discovered where it had been nesting inside the human cranium. Fine, parallel grooves indicative of small rodent gnawing were noted on multiple postcranial elements, and all isolated grooves were consistent in size with the incisors of this species. Other taphonomic alterations to these remains include some gnawing damage and dispersal by large carnivores. This case represents the first report of this rodent species affecting human remains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Certification through the American Board of Forensic Anthropology (ABFA) provides forensic anthropologists with accredited validation of the highest level of qualifications (including education and training) and professionalism in the discipline, through rigorous vetting of an applicant's casework, knowledge, and skill. It encourages adherence to best practice methodological and ethical standards and provides a system of recognition of qualified professionals to external agencies. Current policies and procedures (and their evolution) for ABFA certification are reviewed as they contribute to construction of an equitable, impartial, and objective system for assessing and endorsing professional competency. Advice is provided for ABFA applicants for successful navigation of the ABFA certification process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The professionalization of forensic anthropology in North America began with the establishment of the Physical Anthropology section (now Anthropology Section) of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS) in 1972 and the development of the American Board of Forensic Anthropology (ABFA) board certification program in 1977-78. This review first outlines the history of ABFA board certification, then discusses temporal trends among ABFA diplomate recipients, ABFA leadership, and ABFA qualification requirements (i.e., examination structure and content). The data reveal that ABFA demographic and qualification developments mirror academic trends in the discipline over the past four decades. Our assessment indicates substantial growth of the ABFA from the year 2000 to present, a shorter waiting period between receipt of the PhD and board certification, and a significant shift toward a membership and leadership reflective of a younger cohort with greater representation by women. Changes in ABFA qualifications, as revealed by an exam content review over this period, reflect many of the academic trends we have seen in our discipline as a whole, including greater specialization, reliance on technological advancements, recognition of population variability, and the need to accurately measure and mitigate error and bias. With the increased availability of DNA analysis, biological profile research and expertise may be giving way to other specializations within forensic anthropology, including bone morphology, skeletal growth and development, fracture biomechanics, fracture healing, and taphonomy, including time since death estimation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]