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In recent years school-to-school collaboration in the English context has been promoted by a myriad of policy initiatives. Many of these initiatives have been directed at structural reforms seeking to facilitate a 'self-improving system' in which schools support one another to raise standards of teaching and learning and address educational inequality. Yet, at the same time, the English school system remains a deeply marketised and competitive arena while there are debates concerning the extent to which collaboration between schools can meaningfully facilitate educational improvement and equity. Taking these issues as a starting point, this paper reports on findings from a configurative review of the empirical evidence on school-to-school collaboration in England. Drawing on 46 peer-reviewed empirical studies from 2000 onwards, the paper provides insight into the reasons why schools enter into collaborative arrangements and the conditions and factors that can facilitate and hinder such activity, as well as the possible benefits that can result from collaboration between schools. A number of weaknesses within the field are also identified. For example, there is a need for more conceptual and terminological clarity and a stronger theoretical basis for research in this area. We also argue that the field is deficient in respect of critical perspective and interpretation (of collaborative practice). Furthermore, research into school-to-school collaboration is lagging behind policy and practice, presenting a formidable challenge for a system increasingly underpinned by an expectation that schools will work in partnership with one another.

This article provides an evaluative account of its authors' involvement in three major national improvement initiatives. Set in the context of three of the countries that make up the UK, these developments were focused in particular on the promotion of educational equity. Unusually, the analysis provided compares evidence collected from an insider perspective with data generated through independent evaluations. In so doing, it considers how research and researchers can contribute to system change by using research evidence to influence policy-makers and practitioners at all levels of the system. The article argues that this requires the coming together of different perspectives in a process of social learning and knowledge creation within particular settings. This means that researchers have to overcome a number of barriers related to social, cultural and political factors. They therefore have to develop skills in creating collaborative partnerships that span boundaries between actors who have different types of professional experience. It is argued that researchers also need to mobilise support in dealing with the pressures that this involves. The article concludes with the presentation of a strategic framework that can be used to think about how school systems can be helped to make better use of research knowledge.

Purpose: Historically, the school effectiveness and improvement movement has focussed its attention on "within school" factors associated with effectiveness and improvement and on the individual school as the primary unit of analysis for improvement and scrutiny purposes. More recently, research has focussed on school-to-school collaboration and engagement with a broader range of services and providers has highlighted the need for more adaptive and nuanced forms of collaboration and partnership. The purpose of this paper is to explore this complex landscape from the perspective of educational reform of the middle tier in Scotland. Design/methodology/approach: This paper draws on perspectives associated with socio-cultural theory, its application to public service settings and insights gained from research and evaluation outcomes over a five-year period. Findings: This paper focusses on the establishment of Regional Improvement Collaboratives in Scotland; an example of an attempt to generate system-wide change and a shift from the hierarchical cultures characterised by bureaucratic organisations to more egalitarian cultures characterised by mutualistic, laterally networked organisations. It highlights the importance of structure and cultural change, identity and agency, leadership capacity, outward perspectives, primacy of learning and teaching and variations and complexities in creating a more networked and collaborative education system. It offers cautions concerning potential unintended consequences in the quest to develop a "self-improving" or "learning system." Practical implications: This paper highlights the importance of maintaining and building social cohesion between different stakeholders within educational systems in order to support the implementation of educational reform. Originality/value: This is the first documentation and reflective analysis for an ambitious reform agenda for the middle tier in Scotland. Its value lies in the lessons and considerations it offers to other systems embarking on reforms that endeavour to build more cohesive and agile education systems, without opening them up to neo-liberal approaches to education.

School-to-school collaboration has been central to many improvement efforts over recent decades. In an attempt to promote both improvement and equity current developments in England have included changing formal governance arrangements to promote collaboration for improvement through "federations" and "chains" of schools. However, federations and school chains remain a relatively under-explored area and there is a noticeable absence of research exploring the impact of such arrangements on student outcomes. This paper draws on a programme of research including the national evaluation of federations, the first quantitative study of the impact of federations on student outcomes and a longitudinal qualitative study of the development of federations to consider two key questions: What is a federation? And do federations make a difference? In order to achieve this, the paper provides an overview of the key characteristics of federations and considers their contribution to improvement efforts. In conclusion the paper reflects on a number of issues and implications associated with developing a federated school system.

Although the number and size of academy chains in England is still increasing, the implications of these arrangements at a local level remain under-researched. This article reports findings from a comparative case study focusing on governance arrangements and sponsor involvement in two chains of academies. The findings suggest that the policy and practice of these multi-academy sponsors define the autonomy of the individual academies within the chains, so that the level of autonomy individual academies experience varies significantly between, as well as within, chains.

This study adopted a quantitative methodology involving a matched sample of federated and non-federated schools and utilising multilevel modelling techniques to explore the impact of federations on student outcomes. The sample involves a total of 50 school districts and 264 schools. These are grouped into 122 federations; 264 comparator schools were selected to match these. The study has identified 6 broad and sometimes overlapping categories of federations. The findings suggest there is evidence of impact on overall performance, in that, while federation and comparator schools perform similarly at baseline, federation is positively related to performance in the years following federation. There is evidence to suggest that impact is strongest in performance federations. There is no relationship between federation and inspection judgements or differential impact on students from different socioeconomic settings. In conclusion, this article reflects on the findings to discuss the key implications for future research, policy, and practice.

Educational effectiveness research (EER) has accumulated much knowledge in the areas of school effectiveness research (SER), teacher effectiveness research (TER) and school/system improvement research (SSIR). Yet many schools and educational systems are not making enough use of the material and their insights. The article reviews evidence of practitioner engagement and finds it limited in the areas of SER, greater in the area of TER and most prevalent in SSIR. Policy-maker engagement has been notable in some countries, but more limited in others. The article concludes by arguing for a new paradigm of EER that studies multiple levels of the educational system simultaneously utilising multiple methods and involves practitioners and policy-makers in a true EER community of expertise, in order to increase the reach and take-up of the discipline. ["Getting Lost in Translation? An Analysis of the International Engagement of Practitioners and Policy-Makers with the Educational Effectiveness Research Base" was written with Carol Campbell, Bert Creemers Lorna Earl, Leonidas Kyriakides, Gonzalo Munoz, Louise Stoll, Sam Stringfield, Boudewijn van Velzen and Jose Weinstein.]

Recent reforms in England include the aim of converting every school into an "independent state funded school," an academy, and giving the strongest schools more responsibility for initial teacher education, offering professional development programs, and supporting the improvement of less successful schools. School leaders are attempting to understand the new emerging landscape, interpreting meanings, and considering how to respond. This article provides an overview of recent developments in policy and practice in England and a synthesis of a program of research that has been tracking development for the past 7 years.

Educational systems around the world are experimenting with new forms of schooling. One example is the emergence of independent state-funded schools (ISFSs). In the USA these have taken the form of Charter Schools. In Sweden chains of Free Schools have been established and in England Academies and most recently Free Schools have been placed at the centre of government reforms. This article offers clarity of definition relating to ISFSs and chains of ISFSs and charts some of the features of these recent developments, highlighting a shift in emphasis of improvement efforts from individual schools to collaborative chains and federations. In conclusion this article argues that ISFSs are supporting a shift from "Individualised" school improvement to a collaborative form of "Federal" improvement, but within the current arrangements they are unlikely to be able to support broader "systemic" improvement efforts unless attention is paid to both structural and cultural change.

Background: Formalised networks have become integral features of many education systems. Some networks have emerged organically as practitioners have sought to share and improve practice while others have been systematically planned and supported by policy makers in an attempt to raise the overall effectiveness of entire systems. However, despite their rising popularity the literature pertaining to their purposes, design and function remains limited. Furthermore, their impact on schools, teachers and students is even less clear. Purpose and sources of evidence: This article draws on the literature and the authors' research on school-based networks to explore their nature and contribution to school improvement. Main argument and conclusions: In conclusion, it is argued three specific areas warrant further investigation. First, the "constitution" or mix and balance of those involved in the network, second, the "relationships" or the interactions between those involved in the network, and third, the "purpose and identity" or the aims and objectives of the network and the identity those involved create for the network, and that a deeper understanding of these areas will go some way to realise the potential of school-based networks.

In England, federations are defined as groups of schools that have a formal agreement to collaborate with the aim of raising achievement and promoting inclusion and innovation. This paper presents a number of findings from the case study strand of a 3-year study investigating the impact of 37 federations (see Lindsay et al., 2007). Maximum variation sampling (Maykutt & Morehouse, 1994) was used to select 10 case study federations. Key stakeholders were interviewed during 3 rounds of field visits. Documentary evidence from each case provided important contextual information and provided a source of triangulation. Within- and between-case analyses from case studies (Miles & Huberman, 1994) highlighted a number of key themes, patterns, and trends that have implications for the development of collaborative strategies attempting to restructure and reculture schools and their communities. This paper explores issues of leadership, management, and governance in federations. Findings suggest localised ownership and control of the process within the context of interdependent relationships have supported the development of a range of models of governance, leadership, and management in school federations. (Contains 1 note and 2 tables.)

Background: In recent years, there have been a number of policies aimed at improving educational standards in England, particularly in urban and challenging contexts. Many of these attempts have been underpinned by the principle of collaboration, where schools work together to generate and share knowledge across institutional boundaries. Purpose: This article draws on empirical evidence to explore the relationship between Networked Learning Communities and school improvement in challenging circumstances. Programme description: The Networked Learning Communities programme aimed to support school improvement through collaborative enquiry. The programme involved over 1000 schools working together in over 80 networks. The scheme was piloted in 2000 and officially closed in late 2006. However, many of the networks continue working collaboratively, either in revised form or under a new branding. Sample: The research involved three networks focusing on four secondary schools facing particularly challenging circumstances. Design and methods: This study consisted of a literature review and case studies of four schools located in three networks. Data collection involved the scrutiny of documentary evidence (school, network and national level) and semi-structured interviews with a range of key stakeholders (including leaders, teachers, support staff and students). Interviews were recorded, coded and analysed to illuminate emerging patterns, trends and themes within the data. Results: While there was no significant short-term gain in examination performance within schools in the study, results suggest Networked Learning Communities supported a number of processes associated with building the capacity for school improvement but the sophistication and extent to which they were developed varied across networks. Conclusions: The evidence suggests a more contextually sensitive approach to networking in urban and challenging contexts may yield greater returns. It is argued that such a cyclical approach should focus on: an analysis of the context, agreeing purposes, accessing expertise and taking action. (Contains 1 figure.)

This article draws on findings from two English research projects exploring collaborative reform for schools in difficulty. Initially, the article provides a brief policy overview of some of the key policy drivers of educational reform in England during the past decade. This contextual analysis is used to provide background for the exploration of two contrasting examples of collaborative models for improvement. First, the central government policy of "Federating" schools is considered; second, the Specialist Schools and Academies Trust "Specialist Schools Achievement Programme" is examined. The article draws together some emerging key themes from the models to discuss their implications for the future development of models for improvement in schools in difficulty. In conclusion, the article presents a number of propositions that require further exploration. (Contains 2 notes.)

This article reflects on lessons learnt from recent research and evaluation work in secondary schools operating in urban and challenging contexts in England. It is suggested that there is a common process that effective leaders follow in order to generate and sustain tangible improvements. Central to this argument are the incremental devolution of autonomy and the sequential development of meaningful interpersonal relationships within the organisation. In conclusion this article speculates that successful leaders in schools facing challenging contexts have a highly developed understanding of the necessity to achieve synergy between leadership approaches and the development phase of the organisation. (Contains 3 figures and 2 notes.)

Schools in difficult and challenging circumstances have received increasing policy and to some extent research attention in recent years. Improving schools in these circumstances is likely to prove a difficult process. This literature review has attempted to collect research on improving schools in these areas. Themes emerging from the literature include: a focus on teaching and learning, leadership, creating an information-rich environment, creating a positive school culture, building a learning community, continuous professional development, involving parents, external support and resources. The crucial issue of sustaining improvement is also discussed.

This paper outlines the contemporary research evidence concerning school improvement in challenging contexts. Drawing upon findings from recent studies in the UK funded by the Department for Education and Skills (DfES) and the National College for School Leadership (NCSL) the paper outlines some of the improvement strategies that have been successful in raising achievement in schools in challenging contexts. It argues that school improvement interventions must offer differential strategies for change that fit the particular developmental stage of the school. The paper concludes by suggesting that more fine-grained and differentiated approaches to school improvement are needed that offer more flexibility and choice, particularly for those schools facing difficult or challenging circumstances.

Reviews the literature on what works in school improvement in the UK. Outlines the practices that appear to be necessary--in terms of organization, culture, leadership, and ethos--to improve the levels of effectiveness. Appended is an outline of a number of particularly effective school-improvement projects. (Contains 22 references.) (WFA)

Findings from a study of teachers' views of the Office for Standards in Education (Ofsted) in England and Wales as a mechanism for improving secondary schools. Examines how teachers perceive the inspection process, whether Ofsted's process generates changes, and whether Ofsted's priorities agree with the school's. (Contains 44 references.) (WFA)

Reports findings from a preliminary study evaluating effects of the UK's Office for Standards in Education inspections on classroom change, based on teachers' perceptions, responses, and intentions to change practice (resulting from the inspection process) at five comprehensive secondary schools. School context and culture figure prominently. (Contains 40 references.) (MLH)