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International audience; This study investigated the impact of tumbling on mass transfer mechanisms occurring in small beef meat pieces during biltong production, by measuring salt, water and acetic acid profiles within the meat for different experimental tumbling conditions. Tumbling conditions significantly impacted the solute concentration profiles, except for that of water. Values of both salt and acetic acid diffusion coefficients obtained clearly showed that tumbling increased solute transfers inside meat, with diffusion coefficient values ranging from 2 to 27 x 10(-9) m(2) s(-1) and from 0.2 to 8.6 x 10(-9) m(2) s(-1), respectively. The tumbling mechanical effect related to the device used impacted the most on mass transfers (p-value < 0.01 for salt and acetic acid diffusion), followed by tumbling time (p-value < 0.01 for salt and acetic acid diffusion), and to a lesser extent, the use of vacuum (p-value < 0.01 for salt diffusion and p-value < 0.05 for acetic acid diffusion). Further studies should define the best salt and acid concentration profiles generated when tumbling, so as to obtain the best trade-off between good sanitary protection of meat and a sufficiently tender and organoleptically acceptable end-product after the final drying operation.

The potential of Moringa oleifera leaf powder (MLP) to limit lipid oxidation in nitrite‐free unfermented dry pork sausages (droewors) was investigated. Total phenolic compounds, α‐tocopherol and β‐carotene content of MLP was quantified. Droewors with no additives, 0.75 g/100 g MLP or 15 mg/kg vitamin E (VE) oil were processed and sampled after drying (3 days) and during 56 days of storage. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) of droewors made with MLP were lower until day 10. The effects of 0, 0.5, 1, and 2 g/100 g MLP on TBARS, ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and the α‐tocopherol, γ‐tocopherol, and β‐carotene content of droewors were assessed during drying and 7 days of storage. MLP inclusion significantly increased FRAP, α‐tocopherol, and β‐carotene content. From the end of drying, TBARS of droewors formulated with MLP were significantly lower compared to droewors formulated without MLP. Increasing the MLP inclusion level had no significant effect on TBARS. Practical applications: The research assesses and demonstrates the potential of Moringa oleifera leaf powder (MLP) as a natural additive to inhibit the rate and extent of lipid oxidation in unfermented dry pork sausages (droewors) with no nitrites/nitrates added. The inclusion of MLP in pork droewors at levels ranging from 0.5 to 2 g/100 g significantly increased the antioxidant activity (FRAP) and quantity of antioxidant vitamins (α‐tocopherol, and β‐carotene) in the product. Higher inhibition of lipid oxidation (TBARS) was observed in droewors with MLP added compared to the positive (vitamin E oil) and negative (no additives) controls. The different MLP inclusion levels used in the study resulted in similar lipid oxidation inhibition. Therefore, the findings show that the application of 0.5 g/100 g MLP is sufficient to decrease lipid oxidation in pork droewors and could potentially be applied to other types of dry‐cured sausages for this purpose.

Droëwors are traditional South African salted and dried sausages, made without nitrites/nitrates and non- fermented. Different meat sources (beef, game and ostrich) are traditionally used in droëwors processing, while the use of pork is uncommon, as it is said to lead to rancidity. The first part of the study analysed the physico-chemical composition of commercially available beef, game and ostrich meat droëwors (n = 20). On average, they were composed of 26.3–29.2 g/100 g moisture, 41.3–44.0 g/100 g protein, 26.2–33.1 g/100 g fat and 5.9–6.5 g/100 g ash and 5.0–5.4 pH. Water activity (0.76–0.82) was sufficiently low to ensure shelf stability at ambient temperatures. In the second part beef and pork droëwors were formulated in accordance with these results and with similar fat content, dried for 2 days (30 °C, 40% relative humidity) and stored for 26 days (25 °C, 50% relative humidity); measuring moisture, water activity, pH and lipid oxidative stability (thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS)) weekly. At day 5, moisture and thus water activity of pork droëwors was slightly higher compared to beef ones and fat and ash content slightly lower (P ≤ 0.05) despite similar weight loss. Even with slightly less fat, TBARS in pork droëwors were significantly higher after drying and throughout storage (3.83 vs 0.99 mg MDA equivalents/kg dry matter at a maximum).

Biltong is an Ready to Eat (RTE) shelf stable salted/dried meat product stored under ambient conditions. The effect of vinegar addition during salting, weight loss during drying and packaging (modified atmosphere and vacuum) on the physicochemical and microbiological properties of beef biltong over a 3 months storage at 25 °C was investigated. Biltong dried to ~50% weight loss had a moisture content of ~50 g/100 g, salt content of 7.49 g/100 g and water activity >0.81 whilst biltong dried to 65% weight loss had a moisture content of 30 g/100 g, salt content of 7.14 g/100 g and water activity

International audience; Kitoza refers to a traditional way of preparing beef and pork in Madagascar. However, in order to improve some drawbacks previous identified, the product was submitted to a reengineering process. The acceptance and sensory profiling of improved Kitoza products among Portuguese consumers was investigated. A local smoked loin sausage was selected as basis for comparison. Firstly, a Focus Group study was performed to identify sensory descriptors for Kitoza products and explore product perception. Subsequently, a Flash Profile and a consumer sensory acceptance study were conducted. Flash Profile's results showed that beef-and pork-based Kitoza products investigated differed considerably in all sensory dimensions. The Portuguese sausage was characterized as having a more intense and lasting after taste, as well as displaying a higher degree of (meat) doneness. The acceptance study yielded higher overall liking ratings for pork-than for beef-based Kitoza, although the Portuguese sausage remained the most appreciated product.

Kitoza is a traditional meat product from Madagascar manufactured with strips of pork or beef. The process includes a first step of salting and mixing with spices followed by sun-drying or smoking step. As salting and drying select coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS), our aim was to identify the CNS species in kitoza with the objective in the future of developing indigenous starters. Microbial analyses revealed that the only pathogenic bacterium enumerated was Staphylococcus aureus , which was found in 54% of the samples. The level of Enterobacteriaceae revealed a rather good hygienic quality of these products. CNS were confirmed in all the samples at high levels ranging from 5 to 7 log cfu/g. Identification of CNS species in a large collection of 829 isolates revealed 9 identified species, 7 for beef and 8 for pork kitoza. There were significant difference in the distribution of CNS species according to the type of meat and the process. Staphylococcus saprophyticus was the dominant species for sun-dried or smoked beef and sun-dried pork kitoza (73–75%), while for smoked pork kitoza Staphylococcus equorum (26%), S. saprophyticus (23%), Staphylococcus succinus (23%) and Staphylococcus epidermidis (17%) co-dominated. Some CNS could be used as indigenous starters in particular to compete against S. aureus .

The traditional small-scale production of boucane, a cured smoked pork-belly product from Reunion, involves several unit operations that are performed in a single step. The aim of this study was to highligh the impact of 4 unit operations (salting, drying, cooking, and smoking) on stability, color, and flavor development in processed pork. These characateristics are the 3 main criteria of boucane's quality. Mass transfer, color, and volatile compounds were measured, analyzed, and compared in 4 products. Results indicated that a major quantity of volatile compounds detected in the processed meat were derived from the smoking process. Color variations were mainly explained by muscle pigment modification due to the cooking process, and by the input of volatile compounds of smoke. (Resume d'auteur)

International audience; The microbiological and physicochemical characteristics of several commercial beef, kudu and springbok biltong samples from South Africa were assessed in this study. Analysis of samples allowed their differentiation into ‘dry’ and ‘moist’ samples. Dry biltong showed low moisture content (21.5–25.3 g/100 g), a low water activity (0.65–0.68) and a high salt content (5.5–7.9 g/100 g), while moist biltong showed a higher moisture content (35.1–42.8 g/100 g), a higher water activity (0.85 to 0.89) and a lower salt content (3.8–5.6 g/100 g). The pH value did not vary significantly between both groups (5.00–6.26). The results showed that dry biltong presented a low total plate count (TPC) content, a high level of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and a high level of d-lactic acid as compared to moist biltong. These results suggest that dry biltong complies with the standard hygienic quality (TPC

Kilishi, a meat-based traditional product of Sahelian Africa, is a sun-dried, coated and grilled beef. The effect of moisture content of the dried meat before coating and sauce ingredients, on coating quality and product yield of kilishi were determined. Analysis of the losses after the coating and grilling stages highlighted the mechanisms that determine coating quality. To improve sauce adhesion to the dried meat, wheatflour was added to the traditional sauce (a mixture of groundnut paste, water, and spices). The amounts of water and wheat flour required to ensure that the sauce adhered to the meat well were also determined. This has optimized the kilishi processing to improve product yield.

Mass yield and operating time for a pork meat dehydration–impregnation–soaking (DIS) process were optimized using a coupled genetic algorithm/sequential quadratic programming method in order to obtain the optimal operating conditions: temperature and soaking solution concentrations. The DIS process was simulated by a neural network model. The non-linear optimization problem was constrained to ensure the main product characteristics: stability indicated by the water activity target and flavour characterized by the phenol gain target. The climatic conditions, the model validity region, the raw material costs and the operator working schedule were taken into account. Optimal solutions are discussed for three different batch configurations: single-stage processing under constant conditions, single-stage processing under varying temperature and two-stage processing under constant conditions. The most convenient operation resulted in a two-stage soaking process because of time, energy and cost savings, control convenience, product cooling anticipation and a reasonably high mass yield.

Boucane is a cured pork belly product ftom Reunion. This product is traditionally processed by salting, drying, cooking and smoking raw pork belly in one step or sequentially. A technique involving immersion in a concentrated solution (consisting of water, salt, glucose syrup and liquid smoke flavoring) is proposed with the aim of improving the efficiency of the boucane manufacturing process and enhancing the sanitary quality, of the end product. The product could thus be directly dehydrated and formulated in a single operation by this alternative process. An artificial neural network model was developed to analyse and optimize this process. The model mathematically correlates the process command variables (temperature, sugar and liquid smoke flavoring concentrations of the immersion solution) with the end-product characteristics (water loss, salt, phenol and sugar gains, water activity and pH patterns). (Resume d'auteur)

Venison muscle meats were simultaneously salted and dried by soaking in a mixed concentrated solution (salt/corn starch syrup) at a low temperature, a process known as dewatering and impregnation soaking (DIS). Cured products of suitable market quality (in terms of their salt and water content) were obtained with this process. The impregnation of standard curing additives (nitrites and polyphosphates) into the meat product was controlled by mixing these compounds in the concentrated solution. Also, beneficial effects of additives on the physicochemical, microbiological and organoleptic characteristics of the product are confirmed. The present study highlights the choice of DIS process and proposed optimal DIS conditions for formulating cured products.