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Penicillium expansum is the causal agent of blue mold in harvested fruits and vegetables during storage and distribution, causing serious economic loss. In this study we seek the action modes of bifonazole against this pathogen. Bifonazole exhibited strong antifungal activity against P. expansum by inhibiting ergosterol synthesis. The ergosterol depletion caused damage to the cell structure and especially cell membrane integrity as observed by SEM and TEM. With increased unsaturated fatty acids contents, the cell membrane viscosity decreases and can no longer effectively maintain the cytoplasm, which ultimately decreases extracellular conductivity, changes intracellular pH and ion homeostasis. Exposure of hyphal cells to bifonazole shows that mitochondrial respiration is inhibited and reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels–including H2O2 and malondialdehyde (MDA) – are significantly increased. The functional impairment of mitochondria and cell membrane eventually cause cell death through intrinsic apoptosis and necroptosis.

BACKROUND The study aims to reveal effects of hexanoic acid on microbial community, fermentation and hygienic quality of corn silages with or without fungal infection. Fungal infested (FI) and non-infested (NFI) whole-crop corn were separately ensiled without (control, CON) or with Hexanoic acid (Hex, 90% purity) at 0.2 g·kg-1 fresh weight (FW). RESULT The addition of Hex accelerated the pH decline during the first 5 d of ensiling regardless of fungal infestation. The lactic acid (LA) concentration in Hex silages was lower than that of CON during 45 d of ensiling, however the FI-Hex silage had the highest LA concentration among treatments on d 90. The Hex silage showed lower aflatoxin B1 (AFB1 ), zearalenone (ZEA), and deoxynivalenol (DON) concentrations than CON for FI silages. On d 5, the addition of Hex decreased the relative abundance of Klebsiella, Pantoea, and Enterobacter compared with CON regardless of fungal infestation, this inhibitory effect last until d 90 for NFI silages but disappeared for FI silages on d 90. The fungal infestation resulted in accumulation of Candida (34.05%) and Wickerhamomyces (19.46%). Hex decreased the relative abundance of Asperigillus, Issatchenkia and Penicillium for NFI silages on d 5, however its inhibitory effects was not observed in FI silages on d 5. CONCLUSION Fungal infestation was associated with poor fermentation and hygienic quality of corn silage, adding Hex accelerated the pH decline and maintained the antifungal activity until 90 d of ensiling, attenuating adverse effects of fungal infestation on the fermentation and preventing the accumulation of mycotoxins in corn silages. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Blue mold pathogen, isolated from infected Allium cepa L., was identified as a Penicillium species through morphological and molecular characterisation. Internal Transcribed spacer (ITS) region of ribosomal DNA (rDNA) was utilised for DNA sequencing. Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) analysis has found the maximum similarity index of the fungus to be 82.39% with the Uncultured Penicillium clone (Accession: MF535522). So, the isolated Penicillium specie is the first reported specie of the genus that infects onion. A phylogenetic tree was constructed to establish a relationship of the isolated fungus with the most relevant species reported on GenBank. Extracts of Pennisetum flaccidum Griseb. were evaluated against the isolated fungus as a potential biocontrol agent. Among the five tested methanol concentrations (0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, 2% and 2.5%) of each plant part (root, inflorescence and foliage), 0.5% root extract showed maximum growth retardation, i.e. 89%. For bioassay-guided fractionation, the root extract was partitioned in n-hexane, chloroform, n-butanol and ethyl acetate. Ethyl acetate (1%) was proved to be the most potent one. Phytochemical screening has confirmed the occurrence of terpenoids, tannins, saponins and alkaloids. The applied molecular approach has deduced that the Penicillium specie collected from Pakistan might be novel. This study can be concluded that P. flaccidum contains potent phytochemicals which might be used as antifungal agent against Penicillium species.

Ear rot is one of the most prevalent and destructive diseases of maize. During field surveys, it was found that a Penicillium ear rot broke out in some areas of Shanxi, Shaanxi, Hebei, and Tianjin in China, with an incidence of 3 to 90%. A Penicillium sp. was isolated from diseased kernels covered with greyish green mold, and three isolates were identified by morphologic and molecular characteristics. The pathogenicity of isolate ZBS205 to maize ears was further determined by artificial inoculation in a field. Furthermore, the sensitivity of isolate ZBS205 against six commonly used fungicides was also evaluated. According to macro- and micromorphologic characteristics, isolate ZBS205 was generally identical to Talaromyces funiculosus (teleomorph of Penicillium funiculosum). The partial gene sequences of the nuclear ribosomal ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 (ITS) region, β-tubulin, putative ribosome biogenesis protein (Tsr1), and the second largest subunit of the RNA polymerase II (RPB2) from isolates ZBS205, D49-1, and S73-1 showed the highest nucleotide identity to T. funiculosus strain X33, and the phylogenetic analysis conducted by the neighbor-joining method with the combined data of the four genes demonstrated that these three isolates clustered with T. funiculosus strain X33. These results suggested that the fungus isolated from diseased maize kernels was T. funiculosus. Pathogenicity testing showed that the T. funiculosus isolate ZBS205 was pathogenic to maize ears, which showed symptoms of rotted cob and deteriorated kernels. This is the first report of T. funiculosus as the definitive pathogen causing maize ear rot. The result of fungal sensitivity against fungicides showed that pyraclostrobin exhibited the highest toxicity to mycelial growth and could be used as a candidate agent for the prevention and control of T. funiculosus ear rot. The results of the present study provide a basis for understanding ear rot caused by T. funiculosus, and they should play an important role in disease management.

Spices are parts of plants or plant substances primarily used for flavouring and preservation of food. Spices can be exposed to microbial contamination and toxic substances such as mycotoxins during processing storage and distribution. The aim of the study was to determine the incidence of toxigenic moulds in food spices sold in open markets in Benin City. A total of 35 samples were obtained from three markets. Potato dextrose agar (PDA) and Aspergillus flavus and parasiticus agar (AFPA) were employed for the isolation, characterization and identification of fungal isolates using standard microbiological procedures. The pH was determined using an electronic pH meter, titratable acidity and moisture content were also determined using appropriate methods. Fungi isolated in this study included; Fusarium sp., Alternaria sp., Rhizopus sp., Geotrichum sp., Cladosporium sp., Aspergillus niger and Penicillium sp. The most occurring fungus was Fusarium sp. (26%) while Alternaria sp. (2%) was the least occurring fungus. The fungal load ranged from 0.33 - 28.67 x 103 sfu/g and the pH values of samples ranged from 4.83 – 5.67. The titratable acidity ranged from 0.037 – 0.521 mg/l, while the moisture content ranged from 2.0 – 28.0%. The study revealed the presence of toxigenic moulds such as Fusarium and Penicillium species in food spices sold in open markets. This may have resulted from improper storage, handling and poor sanitary conditions in the open markets.

Pears are one of the oldest and the third most important fruit species grown in temperate regions. They are consumed because of their nutritional and health benefits, in fresh form or as various processed products. This article resolves the etiology of the Penicillium-like mold symptoms on pear fruits in Serbia. Samples of pear fruits with blue mold and other Penicillium-like mold symptoms were collected in Serbia from 2016 to 2019, from four storages. The recovered isolates were identified and characterized according to a polyphasic approach. Morphological and physiological analyses were performed on three media and five temperatures, respectively. Four loci (internal transcribed spacer, beta-tubulin, calmodulin, and DNA-dependent RNA polymerase II second largest subunit) were used for sequencing, genetic identification, and phylogenetic analyses. The results of the identification by conventional and molecular methods were in agreement, and they revealed that the obtained isolates belong to five species: Penicillium crustosum, P. expansum, P. italicum, Talaromyces minioluteus, and T. rugulosus. In a pathogenicity test, P. crustosum, P. expansum, T. minioluteus, and T. rugulosus produced decay on artificially inoculated pear fruits, and P. italicum induced tissue response lesions. The results of this study are the first reports of T. minioluteus and T. rugulosus as postharvest pear pathogens. Also, these are the first world records of T. minioluteus, T. rugulosus, and P. italicum on fruits of European pear. Furthermore, this is the first finding of P. crustosum, P. expansum, P. italicum, T. minioluteus, and T. rugulosus on pear fruit in Serbia.

Background Endophytes promote the survival of the host plants affected by unfavorable environment. To confirm the endophytes role in Chaenomeles speciosa pathogenic resistance, fungal isolates were derived from both fruit peel and pulp, and presumptively identified using macroscopic and microscopic techniques. Antifungal potential of the isolates was assayed by dual culture method and agar disc method against Alternaria alternata, Fusarium culmorum, and Fusarium oxysporum strains. Two most active fungal isolates were cultured in Czapek's liquid medium to obtain metabolites. The crude ethyl acetate extracts of metabolites were characterized for antibacterial activity against Basillus subtilis and Erwinia dissolvens, and for component composition by GC–MS technique. Results Nine fungal endophytic isolates were derived from the peel and pulp of C. speciosa fruits and tentatively attributed to Penicillium spp. (seven isolates), Aspergillus spp. (one isolate), Mucor spp. (one isolate). Two fungal isolates, one each of the fruit peel and pulp, were designated as Penicillium sp. I and Penicillium sp. II respectively, and selected for further research. Both isolates showed similar activity against A. alternata; however, Penicillium sp. I activity against F. culmorum and F. oxysporum exceeded the activity of Penicillium sp. II. Cultural medium ethyl acetate extracts of both endophytes exhibited higher antibacterial activity against Gram-positive B. subtilis, while mycelium extracts were more active against Gram-negative E. dissolvens. In general, Penicillium sp. I antibacterial activity was higher in cultural medium extracts, while activity of Penicillium sp. II dominated in mycelium extracts. GC–MS analysis of the fungal metabolites component composition revealed the identity of 27 and 17 compounds, respectively in the ethyl acetate extracts of Penicillium sp. I and Penicillium sp. II cultural medium. Basic compounds produced by the first isolate, were represented by 3-Furanacetic acid, 4-hexyl-2,5-dihydro-2,5-dioxo, Diisooctyl phthalate, 11-Hexadecyn-1-ol, and Propanedioic acid, dihydroxy. At the same time, Phthalic acid diisooctyl ester and other phthalates constituted the main part of the second isolate metabolites, followed by Hexadecanoic acid, Eicosyl isopropyl ether, and 4-Butoxy-2-butanone at a lower content. Conclusions The findings showed that the antimicrobial potential of Chaenomeles fruits endophytic fungi is promising and deserves further investigation.

Seed-borne Streptomyces can transmit vertically from generation to generation and be a mutualism between the endosymbionts and hosts. The aim of this study was to isolate and characterize endophytic Streptomyces strains from wheat sprouts, and to investigate their protection against wheat seed pathogenic fungi Penicillium. Endophytic Streptomyces sp. F6 and Streptomyces sp. F39 were isolated from wheat sprouts germinated under sterile conditions. Both Streptomyces strains could produce siderophores, and showed antagonistic activities against the seed pathogenic fungi Penicillium sp. Z17. The inoculation of Streptomyces sp. F39 and F6 could protect wheat seed germination and promote seedling growth under Penicillium sp. Z17 infection. However, the protection efficiency was impacted by the Streptomyces spore concentrations, the concentration ratios of Streptomyces spores to pathogen spores, and inoculation methods. The results suggested that wheat sprouts harbored diverse endophytic Streptomyces species which derived from wheat seeds, these strains should be more likely transmitted to the next generation, and confer competitive ability to pathogens on the offspring. Owing to the more intimate correlation between sprout endophytic flora with host plants, these strains are more suitable for mature plant interiors compared with those from rhizosphere soils and root interiors.

Global concern about food safety has led to increased interest in the study of food-spoilage fungi. Contaminated food affects human and animal health when such food items are consumed. This study was carried out to determine the fungi associated with stored corn in a bid to establishing their possible role in deterioration of corn. Using standard procedures, these fungi were isolated: Aspergillus, Trichoderma, Penicillium, and Rhizopus species. Results revealed the production of enzymes (protease, amylase, and lipase) by the fungi. The activity of these enzymes could play a role in the spoilage of corn by the fungi. In addition, the isolated fungi are known to be associated with postharvest yield losses in stored produce as well as producing toxins. Therefore, the data presented will help in choosing postharvest practices that will reduce contamination by these fungi. Protease activity values of the isolates ranged from 1.426±0.042 – 1.748±0.023µml-1 (in Aspergillus sp.), 1.599±0.018 – 1.990±0.019µml-1 (in Rhizopus sp.), 1.364±0.018 – 1.679±0.012µml-1 (in Trichoderma sp.) and (1.544±0.017 – 1.714±0.013 μml-1 (in Penicillium sp.). Amylase activity was highest in Rhizopus (1.625±0.054 – 1.790±0.013 μml-1), followed by Penicillium sp and lowest in Aspergillus sp. Lipase activity was highest in Penicillium and lowest in Aspergillus. The detection and identification of fungi are crucial to developing appropriate management strategies for stored corn. Postharvest losses due to these fungi will lead to reduced income for the farmers.

The effects of agrochemicals pollution on soil nutrients, soil microbes as well as plants cultivated on the soil were studied. Insecticide and herbicide were used to impact on the soil samples across concentration gradients. Bean and maize seeds were planted in separate experiments to monitor the effects of the agrochemicals on the plants. The microbial diversity and the physicochemical characteristics of the soil before and after pollution were determined using standard methods. Chlorophyll contents of the leaves were also determined after planting. Results indicated that bacterial isolates such asEnterococcus sp54(40%),Staphylococcussp 8(13%),Bacillus sp46(34%) andMicrococcus sp15(11%) and fungal isolates such asPenicillium sp41(34%),Saccharomyces sp67(56%), Yeast sp 4(3%),Geotrichum sp6 (5%) andAspergillus sp1(1.8%) were recovered from treated and untreated soil with the percentages representing after planting. From the results, the herbicide treated soils indicated that the Total Heterotrophic Bacterial Count (THBC) increased after cultivation while the Total Heterotrophic Fungal Count (THFC) decreased after cultivation. On the other hand, the insecticides treated soils recorded a general decrease in THFC and THBC after cultivation. The total nitrogen (TN) and available phosphorus (AP) had no significant differences before and after planting while the exchangeable potassium (EP) had significant increase recorded after planting. Plants generally had poor growth characteristics recorded by stem girth and length, as well as chlorophyll content.

Filamentous fungi are frequent contaminants of many plant substrates and certain animal products. Their presence can improve the organoleptic quality of the product or alter it and lead to the accumulation of toxic secondary metabolites, such as mycotoxins. The objective of this work is to characterize the filamentous fungi isolated from the rice "deni kachia" stored and sold on public markets in the city of Daloa. A count and isolation of filamentous fungi, followed by macroscopic and microscopic identification was carried out. Several genera of filamentous fungi was identified. These are the genera Aspergillus, Penicillium and others. The different species of molds identified by conventional biochemical techniques were confirmed by the API 50 CH freezer.The genera Aspergillus and Penicillium are the most predominant in the samples analyzed. The presence of these species with their ability to produce mycotoxins suggests that contaminated rice poses a risk to the health of consumers.

The tri-metallic oxide Ni/Cr/Cu nanoparticles (NPs) were synthesized using Coriander sativum extract as the reducing agent. The precursors namely CuSO4.5H2O, Ni(NO3)2·6H2O and Cr (NO3)3·9H2O were used for the green synthesis. Further, the prepared NPs were characterized using Ultraviolet-Visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction (XRD) studies. Its antimicrobial property against two fungal and two bacterial species was determined by measuring the respective zone of inhibition (ZOI) in well diffusion method. A dose dependent inhibition was observed in all the four species of pathogens including Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Aspergillus flavus and Penicillium sp. This antimicrobial property of tri-metallic oxide NPs may be utilized in the field of medical research, pharmaceutical industries and environmental sciences.

Biosorption is a better method compared to bioaccumulation for the removal of metal contaminants from aqueous solution. Out of different microbial species, fungi have more ability to remove and degrade heavy metal ions due to the presence of different negatively charged species and metal binder polysaccharide groups on its surface. Out of all the fungal species, Penicillium sp. is the mostly prominent one because of its large production and filamentous nature. But, its use in the removal of heavy metal ions from real industrial waste water is limited. Therefore, in the present article heavy metal ions from copper and zinc industrial waste water have been tried to be removed using Penicillium sp. and sodium alginate-immobilized Penicillium sp. Penicillium sp. is more specific towards copper compared to nickel. It has been observed that immobilized Penicillium sp. has more metal removal capacity compared to Penicillium sp. Zinc removal capacity of immobilized Penicillium sp. is much more compared to Penicillium sp. Since highly concentrated metal ions are difficult to be removed in a single stage of operation, total number of stages required for the complete removal of heavy metal contents of two industrial effluents have also been evaluated. The same has been confirmed by performing simulated runs.

This study presents the antimicrobial activities of endophytic fungal crude extracts isolated from leaves, stems and roots of cashew trees (Anacardium occidentale) which showed disease symptoms and those resistant from Fusarium wilt in Mtwara region. Sections of the cashew trees were made and cultured to isolate endophytes. Eight endophytes were isolated and characterized by using morphological and molecular markers. Neopestalotiopsis, Penicillium, Lasidioplodia and Daldinia sp isolated from resistant tree and Auxarthron and Aspergillus sp from diseased tree. Antimicrobial activities of the isolated endophytic fungal crude extracts were done against pathogenic Fusarium oxysporum and three human pathogens namely, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Candida tropicalis. Results showed that all endophytic fungal crude extracts isolated from resistant plants and one from diseased plants exhibited positive antimicrobial activities against bacteria and fungus Candida tropicalis but they had no antifungal activity against Fusarium oxysporum. This study could contribute to the discovery and innovation of therapeutics. This study also implied that the resistance against Fusarium wilt disease might be caused by other unknown factors. More research work is recommended for establishing other possible factors including endophytic bacteria, biotic and abiotic factors that could contribute to resistance of cashew plants to Fusarium oxysporum. Keywords: Antifungal; Phytopathology; Endophyte; Cashew nut disease

Fungi attributed to enhance enzyme activities would be suitable for fast degradation of organic wastes. The present project was undertaken to get fungi from indigenous sources might have higher enzyme activities as well as non-phytopathogenic for fast degradation of organic wastes for the purpose of soil health improvement and reduction of fertilizers load for crop production as safe food approach. Accordingly, eight organic wastes were used for fungal species isolation and evaluated it in production of extracellular enzymes activities (amylase, cellulase, lipase and protease) and three crops seeds (mustard, mung bean and barley) germination. Thirty-nine distinct fungal isolates were tested against extracellular enzymes activities and the isolates of 2(1), 2(4), 2(6), 3(1), 3(7), 4(1), 4(2), 4(4) and 6(5) exhibited remarkable positive response to amylase, cellulase, lipase and protease enzymes activities. Subsequently, five fungal isolates [2(4): Trichoderma sp., 2(6): Trichoderma sp., 3(7): Aspergillus sp., 4(4): Trichoderma sp., and 6(5): Penicillium sp.] were selected based on superior performance in enzyme activities and used for seeds germination. Applied fungal suspension significantly (P ≤ 0.05) increased percent germination, radicle and plumule length but in most of the cases those values were insignificant to the results obtained in control treatment (tap water). The germination indices were higher at the treatments of 2(6), 3(7) and 6(5) isolates to mustard, mung bean and barley, respectively but closer to control treatment. Moreover, none of the applied fungi induced any pathogenic symptoms to any seeds. Perhaps these fungal isolates might play encouraging roles in proper management of organic wastes into compost for agronomic usages in future.

Aspergillus and Penicillium spores occur with considerable frequency in the outdoor air, and their presence is important due to implications in health, agriculture and biodeterioration of cultural heritage. The objective of this research was to study their abundance in the atmosphere of Havana from 2013 to 2017. Two study methods were used, viable method monitoring of the spores with Chirana Aeroscope equipment and the other a non-viable method Lanzoni VPPS 2000. The Aspergillus/Penicillium spores were found to occur with high frequency, their atmospheric concentration varied statistically between climatic seasons, the highest incidence was detected during 2013 and 2015. Aspergillus was more abundant (69%) than Penicillium (31%), with a predominance of the Flavi and Nigri sections, and for Penicillium predominated Penicillium and Furcatum. The viable method, 23 species of Aspergillus and 22 of Penicillium were identified, of which A. flavus, A. niger, P. aurantiogriseum and P. citrinum predominated. A greater degree of similarity was observed in the composition of Aspergillus species, with higher indices (Di,j 0.40-0.73) compared to Penicillium (Di,j 0.30-0.55). The principal component analysis (PCA) showed a high degree of positive association between Aspergillus/Penicillium and relative humidity (non-viable method) and between Aspergillus and Penicillium and maximum and average temperatures (viable method).

Amylases are enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of glycosidic bonds present in starch to release simple sugars. They are one of the most important enzymes in numerous commercial processes. In this investigation, fungal and bacterial strains from the following agro-industrial wastes were isolated and screened for amylolytic ability: soil from oil palm plantation, shea seed, date fruit, coconut meat, cassava effluent, cassava peel, cassava tubers, yam and potato tubers, starch medium, parboiled water from noodles and rice. The results revealed the presence of Geotrichum, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Trichoderma, Rhizopus and Fusarium spp. Five major genera of bacterial species namely Corynebacterium, Pseudomonas, Lactobacillus, Micrococcus and Bacillus were isolated and screened for amylase activity. Cassava soil had the highest heterotrophic bacterial count of 5.7 x105cfu/g and coconut meat waste had the lowest heterotrophic bacterial count of 1.3 x105cfu/g. All isolated microorganisms had the amylolytic ability. The fungal isolates had higher amylase activity when compared with the bacterial isolates. This investigation reveals organisms with high amylase activity.

Mycotoxin-caused myocardial injury has been demonstrated based on epidemiological and experimental studies. Citreoviridin (CIT) is a toxin from yellow-green Penicillium easily grown in wet and cold...

The article presents the results of studies of the quantitative and specific composition of soil micromycetes in potato cultivation, depending on the intensity of irrigation in the north-east of Kazakhstan. During their growth in the soil, plants actively interact with its microflora, while microorganisms can have both positive and negative effects. Micromycetes produce mycotoxins that accumulate in food and, when ingested, cause liver damage and cancer. Some mycotoxins persist in the ground for a long time, and with improper agricultural processing, they accumulate in it, and are also removed from it to adjacent environments (surface reservoirs). As a result of the conducted studies, indicators of the quantitative and specific composition of fungi were obtained, antagonist fungi and toxin-forming species were identified. According to the results of the mycological analysis of soil samples, 39 isolates were isolated. During the study, the accumulation of toxin-forming species was found to be 43−54 % in all the studied variants. In the soil, when using irrigation, there are both pathogenic (18.1-50.0%) and saprophytic (50.0-81.9%) species of micromycetes, as well as toxin-forming species of fungi (46.2-55.6%) , which can cause different effects on the resistance of plants to potato diseases. The greatest number of pathogenic fungi, as well as toxin-forming fungi, was found when using limited watering of potatoes. The greatest number of pathogenic fungal species was observed in the variants with moderate irrigation −38.5 % (genera Fusarium − 30.8 %, Penicillium − 7.7 %), as well as in the variant with maximum irrigation – 50.0 % (genus Fusarium – 39.0%, from the genera Gliocladium and Aspergillus − 5.5%). Thus, the use of crop rotations and repeated fungicidal treatments carried out when growing potatoes does not guarantee the absence of pathogenic microorganisms in the soil, and the use of intensive watering provokes a stronger development of pathogenic microflora. New approaches to integrated potato protection are required.

The effect of different levels of physiological maturation of the fruit and temperature on the seed germination and incidence of fungi that are harmful to the seeds, becomes fundamental for the improvement of the propagation of different native fruit species. The objective of this work was to evaluate the effect of physiological maturation and temperature on the germination and fungi incidence in Eugenia involucrata DC. seeds. Three experiments were carried out. In the experiment I, the effect of four levels of physiological maturation was evaluated, visually determined based on the color of the fruit, and in the experiment II, was evaluated the effect of two levels of maturation and two temperatures (25 and 35 °C) on the germination and vigor of the seeds. In the experiment III, was investigated the incidence of fungi in the seeds at two temperatures (25 and 35 °C). The levels of maturation evaluated did not influence the percentage of germinated seeds, but they influenced seed vigor. The temperature of 25°C was suitable for seed germination. The fungi genera found on the seeds were Trichoderma , Aspergillus , Fusarium , Penicillium , Alternaria, and Colletotrichum with variable incidences depending on evaluated temperature.

Phytoremediation is an important solution to soil pollution management. The goal of this study is to determine the biosorption ability of the two selected fungi (Aspergillus niger and Penicillium chrysosporium) under heavy metal stress on faba bean plants. The fungal strains produced phytohormones, siderophore, ACC deaminase, and secondary metabolites. The biosorption capacity of A. niger and P. chrysosporium was 0.09 and 0.06 mg g-1 and 0.5 and 0.4 mg g-1 in media containing Cd and Pb, respectively. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy of the fungal cell wall show primary functional groups like hydroxyl, amide, carboxyl, phosphoryl, sulfhydryl, and nitro. Therefore, A. niger and P. chrysosporium were inoculated to soils, and then the faba bean seeds were sown. After 21 days of sowing, the plants were irrigated with water to severe as control, with 100 mg L-1 of Cd and 200 mg L-1 of Pb. The results show that Cd and Pb caused a significant reduction in morphological characteristics, auxin, gibberellins, photosynthetic pigments, minerals content, and antioxidant enzymes as compared to control plants but caused a substantial boost in abscisic acid, ethylene, electrolyte leakage, lipid peroxidation, glutathione, proline, superoxide dismutase, secondary metabolites, and antioxidant capacity. In inoculated plants, metal-induced oxidative stress was modulated by inhibiting the transport of metal and decreased electrolyte leakage and lipid peroxidation. Finally, the inoculation of endophytic fungi contributed actively to the absorption of heavy metals and decreased their content in soil and plants. This could be utilized as an excellent technique in the fields of heavy metal-contaminated sustainable agriculture.

Background Pullulanases are the significant industrial group in the 13 glycosyl hydrolases category, known as the α-amylases family. There are very few reports on pullulanase from fungal sources. Based on the above research gap, the present study was undertaken to explore the endophytic fungi for their pullulanase-producing capabilities. Results A total of 126 endophytes were isolated from Tradescantia pallida, Zea mays, and Trifolium alexandrinum. Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Ganoderma species recovered highest from the stem of Tradescantia palida. Fusarium was dominant in the stem and leaf of Zea mays. Penicillium, Aspergillus, Ganoderma, Cladosporium, Fusarium, and Alternaria were recovered from the Trifolium alexandrium. The Shannon index in Tradescantia pallida was highest in leaves while in Zea mays and Trifolium alexandrinum, it is highest in the stem. The Simpson’s index is highest in the case of Zea mays stem and root. Species richness was indicated by Menhinick’s index, and it was found that this value was highest in the roots of Trifolium alexandrinum. As per our knowledge, no comparative data is available on the endophytic diversity of the above plants taken for the study. Out of 126 endophytes, only 2.38% produced pullulanase while 7.94% produced amylase. The recovery of pullulanase-producing endophytic fungi was very less. But the importance of pullulanase is high as compared to amylase because it has both α-1,6 and α-1,4 hydrolyzing ability. Therefore, the most promising isolates were identified by ITS sequence analysis. Based on spore chain morphology, isolates BHU-25 and BHU-30 were identified as Penicillium sp. and Aspergillus species, respectively. This is the first report of pullulanase from endophytic Aspergillus and Penicillium. Conclusion Endophytes Aspergillus sp. and Penicillium sp. produce pullulanase enzyme. This is the first report of pullulanase from endophytic Aspergillus and Penicillium.

The halotolerant phosphate-solubilizing fungus Penicillium sp. NAUSF2 was isolated from rhizospheric soil in coastal regions of South Gujarat, India, and identified on the basis of morphological characteristics and internal transcribed spacer gene sequence (ITS1 and ITS4). The isolate solubilized rock phosphate up to 843 µM. There was drop in pH with the secretion of gluconate (31.7 mM) and oxalate (3.2 mM) mediated by the high glucose oxidase and oxaloacetate acetylhydrolase activities, respectively. This fungus also demonstrated plant growth-promoting activities such as indole-3-acetic acid (127.82 g/L) and siderophore production. Inoculation of Penicillium sp. NAUSF2 to Vigna radiata (mung bean) significantly increased plant P uptake and growth parameters. It showed reduced disease severity index due to increased levels of antioxidative enzymes and jasmonic acid when treated with the leaf spot pathogen Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. V. radiata. These results suggest the potential of Penicillium sp. NAUSF2 as a biotechnological tool to help plants to cope up with stress in saline soils and broaden the spectrum of phosphate solubilizers available for field application.

Purpose Rhizospheric soil fungi are critical for plant and soil health. However, their multiple functional traits and impact on plant growth have not been systematically explored. Methods During this study, biochemical traits of 73 indigenous soil fungal isolates and 15 unidentified isolates related to plant growth promotion and production of extracellular enzymes were studied. Results Forty four (65.67%) of the total isolates produced indole acetic acid (IAA) followed by siderophore (52.23%), phosphate solubilization (37.31%), and antibiotic (11.93%). 91.04% of the studied isolates produced ammonia whereas 28.35% produced organic acid. Extracellular enzyme activities of lipase, amylase, chitinase, and cellulase were detected among 95.52%, 61.11%, 35.82%, and 41.79% isolates, respectively. Based on these activities, 73 fungal isolates were categorized into different biotypes. Quantitative analysis of IAA production and phosphate solubilization was carried out for Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Rhizopus isolates. Aspergillus isolates exhibited varying activities of IAA production and phosphate solubilization. Most of the Aspergillus isolates and some other fungi demonstrated multiple activities. Based on the multiple traits of selected fungal isolates, Aspergillus sp-07, Penicillium sp-03, and Rhizopus sp-02 were further evaluated in different combinations for their inoculation effect on the growth and yield of wheat under field conditions. Conclusions The results indicated that these isolates could be developed into bio-inoculants to enhance plant growth. The consortium of these three isolates was also found to be compatible and beneficial for plant growth.

Surveys were carried out in 2019–2020 to determine the laboratory germination and the microflora species composition in the original and replicated grains of winter rye varieties in the environments of Kirov oblast for potential risk assessment from a phytosanitary perspective in rye biocenoses. Seeds of eight test winter-rye varieties of different geographical origins and ecological conditions served as the survey material. A microbiological analysis of original (sampled at five research institutions in the Russian Federation) and replicated (resown at the Rudnitsky Federal Agricultural Science Center for Northeast) seeds was performed. Percentage of the replicated and original seeds affected with the cumulative impact of infection comprised 93.0 and 51.6% on average, respectively. Representatives of 12 taxa, including Alternaria spp., Fusarium spp., B. sorokiniana, Cladosporium spp., Stemphylium spp., Aspergillus spp., Acremoniella spp., Curvularia spp., Penicillium spp., Mucor spp., Xanthomonas spp., and Bacillus spp., were identified in the seeds. Significant instability in mycobiota of seeds, caused by climatic conditions and genotypes, was revealed. Alternaria infections became dominant on the replicated seeds of all the test varieties, comprising 75.5% on average. Percentage of infections caused by potentially pathogenic fungi, B. sorokiniana and Fusarium spp. species, and bacteria comprised 20.0, 4.0, 6.0, and 1.6%, respectively. The original seed mycobiota had specific properties. Thus, the fungus B. sorokiniana was not revealed. A fuzarium infection is represented only by F. avenaceum, comprising a medium portion of 8.4%. A bacterial infection was dominant in the Saratovskaya 5 (75.0%) and Era (61.5%) winter rye varieties, while its percentage comprised 28.3%, on average. Alternaria infections were found only in the Chulpan 7 (50.0%) and Pyshma (71.4%) varieties. The proportion of potentially pathogenic fungi averaged 43.1%. Significant relationship (r = –0.70) between the laboratory germination of seeds and the bacterial infection was revealed.

The mycotoxin patulin is primarily produced as a secondary metabolite by numerous fungal species and predominantly by Aspergillus, Byssochlamys, and Penicillium species. It is generally associated with fungal infected food materials. Penicillium expansum is considered the only fungal species liable for patulin contamination in pome fruits, especially in apples and apple-based products. This toxin in food poses serious health concerns and economic threat, which has aroused the need to adopt effective detection and mitigation strategies. Understanding its origin sources and biosynthetic mechanism stands essential for efficiently designing a management strategy against this fungal contamination. This review aims to present an updated outline of the sources of patulin occurrence in different foods and their biosynthetic mechanisms. It further provides information regarding the detrimental effects of patulin on human and agriculture as well as its effective detection, management, and control strategies.

Taking into account the appearance of "new pathogens", persistent and uncultivated microorganisms, increasing the resistance of modern strains of microorganisms to disinfectants, increasing their antibiotic resistance and ability to biofilm formation, there is a need to study the microbial community of refrigerating chambers at meat processing enterprises in modern conditions, which was the aim of this work. The study of sanitary condition of the refrigeration equipment of a meat processing plants of the Almaty region of Kazakhstan was carried out by classical methods of microbiology and metagenomic analysis. Methods of classical microbiology allowed to identify the following microflora of refrigerating chambers of meat processing enterprises: bacteria Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus mesentericus, Pseudomonas sp., Sarcina flava, yeast Rhodotorula sp., mycelial fungi Penicillium sp., Alternaria sp., Mucor sp., Aspergillus sp., Chrososporum sp., Tamnidium sp. Metagenomic analysis showed that the bacterial microflora of refrigerating chambers is mainly represented by three phyla: Firmicutes (95.33%-97.94%), Proteobacteria (1.39%-1.02%), Actinobacteria (1.11%-0.63%) and their ratio depends on the temperature of the refrigerators well as on the observance of hygiene standards by personnel. The research results can serve as the basis for recommendations for improving the sanitary condition and safety at meat processing plants.

Background: The presence of toxicogenic fungi and the production of ochratoxin in flour are dangerous to human health. Therefore, identification of these fungi by molecular and precise methods is essential. The aim of this study was molecular identification of fungal species and investigation of ochratoxin A contamination in flours used in bakeries in Hamadan Methods: In this descriptive-analytical study, 60 flour samples were collected from bakeries in Hamadan. At first, fungi were identified using phenotypic methods such as slide culture. Then, the genus and species of fungi were confirmed by PCR and sequencing of PCR products. ELISA method was used to detect ochratoxin A. Data were analyzed with GraphPad software version 6. Results: Of the 60 samples, 28 flour samples (46.66%) were free of fungal contamination and 32 flour samples (53.33%) were over fungal contamination (104 colonies/gr). Aspergillus and penicillium were the most abundant in samples. The prevalence of fungi in flour of Lavash bread, Sangak Bread, Barbari bread, Taftoon bread (Handmade), Taftoon bread (Machinal made), Stokbrood bread and Loaf bread were 50%, 46%, 35%, 31%, 26%, 18% and 11%, respectively. However, the highest levels of ochratoxin A were reported in flour of Lavash bread (3.98 ppb) and the lowest in Loaf bread (0.66 ppb). There was also a significant relationship between the fungal species and the amount of ochratoxin A production in flour of beards. Conclusion: While phenotypic and genotypic methods did not show the same sensitivity, the presence of ochratoxin in the studied flours indicated the necessity of modification in wheat storage and bakery flours.

The production and direct employment in organic medium in the synthesis of ethyl oleate of a solid fermented (FS) containing lipases of Penicillium roqueforti ATCC 10110 (PR10110), was investigated. For the production of this FS, the solid state fermentation of different agro-industrial waste was used, testing: cocoa shell, sugarcane bagasse, sugarcane bagasse with cocoa shell and cocoa shell with soybean oil and nutrient solution. The response surface methodology was used to study the effect of independent variables of initial moisture content (BMI) and inductor concentration, as carbon source and inducer (CS&I) on lipase production. The characterization of the fermented solid in organic medium was also carried out. The highest lipase activity (53±5 U.g-1) was 16% higher than that obtained with the non-optimized conditions. The characterization studies, was observed high stability of the FS in organic solvents for 5 h at 30°C, as well as at different temperatures, and the residual activity was measured against triolein. The FS was also able to catalyze ethyl-oleate synthesis maintaining high relative conversion over 5 reaction cycles of 96 h at 40°C in n-heptane. These results are promising and highlight the use of the FS containing lipases for first time in biocatalytic processes. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Fungi can be present on various substrates in the surrounding environment. The presence of these molds takes advantage of the nutrients that are attached to or contained in the substrate. The purpose of this study was to isolate and obtain various types of molds from various substrates. The method used in this study is a contact plate by attaching it to various objects or substrates, namely leaf litter, composter walls, tables, glass, and cabinets. The fungi obtained were 6 isolates, including those from the genus Aspergillus, Penicillium, Curvularia, and Alternaria

The synergistic effects of carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) combined with Cryptococcus laurentii FRUC DJ1 were studied on controlling green mould resulting from Penicillium digitatum in grapefruit fruit. The results indicate that both C. laurentii and the CMC treatment suppressed P. digitatum conidia germination. In addition, C. laurentii growth in vitro was not affected by low CMC concentrations, nevertheless, the biofilm of C. laurentii was enhanced. Compared with the control fruit, the grapefruit had a lower green mould in all treatments. Significantly synergistic effects were caused by combining C. laurentii and CMC on minimum decay incidence and lesion diameter. Combined treatment induced defence enzyme activities, including chitinase, β-1,3-glucanase, peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase, and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase, together with disease tolerance-associated total phenol. Also, this combination inhibited the pathogen growth by adhered to the hyphae and reduced its infection in fruit wounds. Moreover, the commercial quality parameters in the combined treatment of C. laurentii and CMC, including weight loss, total soluble solids, ascorbic acid, and titratable acidity, were superior to single treatment. The combination of C. laurentii and CMC can not only control postharvest decay but also maintain fruit qualities. Thus, it can be used in grapefruit for commercial purposes.

Objectives: this work was under taken to evaluate the influence of dietary supplementation of ginger, garlic and their combination on quail meat through assessment of its contamination with fungi and its toxins and its effect on human. Methods: We obtained 110, Japanese quail chicks of one day old were included in this study, they were further subdivided into four groups (n = 25/group): Control group was free from any dietary additions and the other three treated groups with ginger, mixed and garlic supplements, respectively for 45 days. After scarifying, skin swab specimens were assembled from quail breast and thigh muscles. Results: revealed that breast and thigh muscles in garlic treated group have the lowest counts of total mold and yeast than those of the others. Notably, control group represented the highest incidence in mold and yeast contamination as compared to that of the others. The isolated mold species were Aspergillus spp. Mucor , Penicillium spp. , Fusarium spp. , Rhizopus , Alternaria and Cladosporium spp. . The isolated Aspergillus strains were A. flavus , A. fumigatus and A. niger Conclusions and potential relevance: It could be concluded that this research established the significance of the dietary addition of ginger, garlic and their combination as antifungal agents in the quail meal whereas, the garlic was the superior supplement for an obvious and considerable decreasing of yeast and mold loads in quails meat.

Dry salted shrimp is a popular food in Acre cuisine, especially as a main ingredient in “tacacá” and “rabada no tucupi”. However, different intrinsic and extrinsic factors can result in accelerated deterioration and microbial proliferation, causing food poisoning to the consumer. The objective was to perform the counting and identification of molds and yeasts in dry salted shrimp in establishments that sell typical foods in the municipality of Rio Branco, state of Acre. Shrimp samples from six establishments were collected in sterile bottles, identified, refrigerated and transported to the Laboratory of Infectious Diseases of Animals at the Federal University of Acre, for the manual counting of colony-forming units and identification of fungal genera. As a result, the number of molds and yeasts in the dried salted shrimp samples varied between 1.0x102 and 1.02x106 CFU/g. Nine fungal genera were identified: Aspergillus, Penicillium, Cladosporium, Malassezia, Fusarium, Exophiala, Candida, Curvularia and Trichosporon. The most frequent were Aspergillus, Penicillium and Cladosporium, these being potential producers of mycotoxins. The presence of molds and yeasts in the samples of dried salted shrimp shows the need for greater hygienic-sanitary rigidity of this fish at different stages of manipulation and processing as preventative measures for public health.

This study aimed to compare fungal contamination of poultry litter between warm and cold seasons. It was carried out in commercial production conditions over two five-week fattening periods: one in the summer (July-August) and one in the winter (December-January). Broilers were reared on a litter composed of chopped straw and sawdust. Litter fungal concentration and composition were investigated weekly, along with litter temperature, moisture, and pH. Litter concentration of total fungi increased over both fattening periods, with no differences in median concentrations between them. Season also had no effect on yeast, Aspergillus section Nigri, and Cladosporium, Fusarium, and Rhizopus spp. concentrations, while the Aspergillus section Flavi and Aspergillus spp. combined showed higher concentrations in the summer, and Mucor and Penicillium spp. in the winter. Total fungal concentration highly correlated with litter temperature, moisture, and pH, regardless of the season. Our findings can be useful in the assessment and control of potential harmful effect of fungi on the health of poultry and poultry farm workers.

Antifungal activity of extracts of cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum), Cloves (Syzygium aromaticum), ginger (Zingiber officinale) and turmeric (Curcuma longa) were evaluated in vitro against 17 Penicillium spp. Seed disease and rotten fruit caused by these species cause considerable loss of quality for different agricultural products. Isolates of Penicillium spp. were screened for production of patulin an important serious mycotoxin. About 70.59% of Penicillium spp. produced this toxin in concentrations ranging from 4 to 31 ppb. The response of Penicillium spp. to plant extracts differed according to the plant extract and concentration. Cinnamon extract showed the greatest effect on P. asperosporum, P. aurintogriseum and P. brevicompactum, and cloves extract produced the greatest effect on P. chermesinum and P. duclauxii. Turmeric extract had less effect on P. duclauxii. Cloves extract was the most effective in reducing the growth of Penicillium spp. On the other hand, ginger extract with all concentrations used had less effect against most Penicillium spp in the laboratory. Plant extracts are promising as natural sources of environmentally friendly compounds in laboratory studies.

In this study, we investigated the antifungal activity of lactose oxidase (LO) as a potential biopreservative in dairy products. Our study objectives were to screen antifungal activity of LO against common mold strains, to detect the minimum inhibitory level of LO against the same strains, and to understand how LO affects the pH and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) counts in set yogurt. Five mold strains (Penicillium chrysogenum, Penicillium citrinum, Penicillium commune, Penicillium decumbens, and Penicillium roqueforti) were used throughout study. These strains were previously isolated from dairy manufacturing plants. Throughout the study, yogurts were stored at 21 ± 2°C for 14 d. Antifungal activity of LO was screened using 2 enzyme levels (1.2 and 12 g/L LO) against selected strains on the surface of a miniature laboratory set-yogurt model. For all tested strains, no visible mold growth was detected on the surface of yogurts covered with LO compared with control yogurt without LO. The minimum inhibitory level of LO against each strain was further investigated using 4 enzyme levels (0.12, 0.48, 0.84, and 1.2 g/L LO) on the miniature laboratory set-yogurt model. We detected 0.84 g/L LO as the minimum level inhibiting visible hyphal growth across strains. The minimum inhibitory level of LO varied for each individual strain. To study the effect of LO on the pH of yogurt, miniature laboratory set-yogurt models were covered with different enzyme levels (0.12, 0.48, 0.84, 1.2, and 12 g/L LO). At d 14, a difference was detected comparing pH values of treatments to control with no LO. Commercial low-fat set yogurt was used to study the effect of LO on LAB survival when yogurt surface was covered with 0.84 g/L LO under the same experimental conditions. Control with no LO was included. At d 14, 3 levels of catalase were added (0, 0.01, and 0.1%) to each treatment. To enumerate LAB, homogenized samples were plated on de Man, Rogosa, and Sharpe agar and incubated. Yogurts with 0.84 g/L LO had lower LAB counts compared with control yogurts, and catalase level did not have a significant effect on LAB counts. Our results demonstrated potential antifungal efficacy of LO against common spoilage organisms in dairy products with residual lactose and relatively low pH. Manufacturers should establish efficacy of LO against mold strains of interest and determine the effects of LO on organoleptic properties and LAB survival in set yogurt.

The occurrence of secondary metabolites and co-contaminants in dairy cow feed samples (n = 115), concentrate, roughage, and mixed feed, collected from Ratchaburi and Kanjanaburi provinces, Thailand, between August 2018 and March 2019 were investigated using LC-MS/MS based multi-toxin method. A total of 113 metabolites were found in the samples. Fungal metabolites were the predominant compounds, followed by plant metabolites. Among major mycotoxins, zearalenone and fumonisins were most frequently detected in concentrate and mixed feed samples, while deoxynivalenol and aflatoxin B1 were found at the frequency lower than 50%. Other metabolites, produced by Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium, and Alternaria species, occurred in the samples. Flavoglaucin, 3-nitropropionic acid, averufin, and sterigmatocystin were the most prevalent Aspergillus metabolites. Common Fusarium metabolites occurring in the samples included moniliformin, beauvericin, and enniatins. For Penicillium metabolites, mycophenolic acid, questiomycin A, quinolactacin A, oxaline, citrinin, and dihydrocitrinone were frequently detected. The toxic Alternaria metabolites, alternariol, and alternariol monomethyl ether showed the high incidence in the samples. Plant metabolites were commonly found, mainly cyanogenic compounds and isoflavones, from cassava and soybean meal used as feed ingredients. Overall, 96.6% of feed samples contained at least two metabolites, in a range from 2 to 69. According to co-contamination of mycotoxins found in feed samples, zearalenone were mostly found in combination with fumonisin B1, deoxynivalenol, and aflatoxin B1. Fumonisin B1 co-occurred with aflatoxin B1 and deoxynivalenol. The mixtures of deoxynivalenol and aflatoxin B1, and of zearalenone, fumonisin B1 and deoxynivalenol were also found. Due to known individual toxicity of fungal and plant metabolites and possible additive or synergistic toxic effects of multi-mycotoxins, the occurrence of these metabolites and co-contaminants should be monitored continuously to ensure food safety through the dairy supply chain.

Penicillium is one of the most important postharvest pathogens of citrus fruits worldwide. It induces blue or green mold disease, a decay that can lead to significant economic losses during storage. Based on internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences, seven Penicillium species and one closely related Talaromyces variabilis were identified from 30 rotten samples of citrus fruits marketed in Qena. Penicillium expansum was the most common species, recovered from 16.7% of the samples, followed by P. chrysogenum (10%) and P. polonicum (10%). Sixteen isolates were tested through inoculation on healthy citrus fruits; the data exhibited that 68.7% of isolates were highly virulent. A “Specific Gene Random Primer Polymerase Chain Reaction (SGRP-PCR)” marker technique indicated that the genetic similarity among P. expasum ranged from 49.4 to 85.7%, and a relatively correlation was found between SGRP band profile and species origin. Patulin was detected in 40% of P. expansum isolates. This study provided a useful molecular approach to identify different Penicillium species by sequencing ITS region, focus on the pathogenicity, compare between P. expansum isolates and their ability in patulin production.

Relevance of the study. One of the ways to maintain the genetic diversity of forest-forming species is to preserve highquality seed material ex situ. However, the relationship between the diversity of pathogenic mycobiota and the duration and methods of forest tree seed storage remains underexplored. The results of research into this problem can be used in forest seed production and forest phytopathology.Materials and methods. For our study we used seeds ofРinus sylvestris L. and Picea abies (L.) Karst. of the orthodox type, harvested in the period of 1996–2011 and stored under different temperatures: +20°С, +4°С, –18°С, and in liquid nitrogen vapor (–182°С) since 2011. Prior to their storage, seed samples were dried to a moisture content of 4.2–4.4% and hermetically packed. Seed germination was tested before and after three, five and eight years of storage, following GOST 13056.6-97 standards. The level of seed infection and the composition of pathogenic fungi were assessed.Results. After eight years of storage at +20°С, pine and spruce seed germination capacity decreased by 13–60%, depending on the year of harvesting. Seed storage at –18°С and –182°С allowed us to prevent seed infection and preserve seed viability. In most cases, the germination energy and germination capacity were negatively correlated with the level of seed infection. The diversity of pathogenic (mold) fungi on the surface of seeds was represented by ten genera; the most common were saprotrophs: Aspergillus P. Micheli, Penicillium Link, Rhizopus Ehrenb., Scopulariopsis Bainier.Conclusion. At the present stage of research, the success of seed storage at low and ultralow temperatures was demonstrated. We recommend cryopreservation for the long-term storage of improved and valuable seeds.

Soil fungi possess a great number of potential benefits that could be applied in various fields. They are well-known for acting as plant-growth promoter, biocontrol agent of plant diseases and involves in bioremediation. In this study, the fungi were isolated from used agricultural soil in Glasshouse and Nursery Complex (GNC), International Islamic University Malaysia, Kuantan, Pahang using serial dilution and plating techniques. Around 10 isolates of soil fungi were successfully isolated and the identification of all isolates were based on their cultural and morphological characteristics. The fungi were discovered to be from genus Cladorrhinum, Penicillium, Paecilomyces and Aspergillus.

Mycotoxins are toxic complexes generated by various genera of filamentous fungi and pose severe public health hazards due to their carcinogenic and mutagenic properties. Toxigenic fungi produce mycotoxins on various foodstuffs when favorable conditions for their production are exist. The most important mycotoxin-producing fungal genera are Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium. The major mycotoxin of concern, including aflatoxins, trichothecenes, ochratoxins, patulin, fumonisins, and zearalenone, are expressively contaminate foodstuffs, with implications for human and animal health. There are various environmental factors influencing mycotoxin production involving temperature, water activity, animal type, aeration, pH, light, and nature of substrate. The temperature and relative moistness range for ideal mycotoxin generation may shift from that steady fungal development. The high temperature and moistness stress primarily have a potential issue. A full understanding of the existence of mycotoxins in addition the implementation measures to overcome their contamination of foodstuffs is crucial. There are different important analytical techniques to precisely screen the levels of mycotoxins contamination and give a wider overview about what is the most common, pathogenic; along with further strategies to control measures. Thus, in this review sampling, sample preparation and different analytical methods for determination of mycotoxins have been discussed.

In recent years, passion fruit orchards have suffered from the high incidence of microorganisms, causing damage from the seedling phase to the post-harvest of the fruits; among these microorganisms are the fungi that comprise the largest number of species associated with the seeds. The objective of this work was to evaluate the incidence of fungi associated with yellow passion fruit seeds in the State of Maranhão. The experiment was carried out in 2014 and conducted at the Seed Laboratory of the State University of Southern Maranhão (UEMASUL), Campus Imperatriz. Fruit seeds collected from six municipalities in the state of Maranhão (Carolina, Capinzal do Norte, Estreito, Imperatriz, Vila Nova dos Martírios and São Luís) were used. A completely randomized design with four replications was adopted. A total of 400 seeds were used per municipality, 50 per gerbox, totaling the processing and analysis of 2400 seeds in general. The incidence of pathogenic agents in the seeds was determined by using the filter paper method with freezing, using four replications of 100 seeds per evaluated municipality. Seven days later, the incidence of pathogens was estimated by using a stereomicroscope, with confirmation of the genus and/or species of the fungus. The incidence of Penicillium sp. in yellow passion fruit seeds occurred in all assessed municipalities collected. The city of Vila Nova dos Martírios has presented the highest incidence of fungi, while the city of Imperatriz has had the lowest rate.

The current study aimed to investigate antifungal activities of two commercially available essential oils (EOs), specifically Tea tree oil (Melaleuca alternifolia; TTEO) and St. John's wort oil (Hypericum perforatum; HPEO) against three Penicillium (P.) species: P. citrinum, P. expansum, and P. crustosum in in situ conditions. For this purpose, EOs were applied in the vapor phase to determine the growth inhibition of fungi artificially inoculated on sliced bread. Changes in colony growth rate were evaluated as markers for the mycelial growth inhibition (MGI) effect of the EOs. The antioxidant activities of the EOs were evaluated using the DPPH method. The moisture content (MC) and water activity (aw) of bread as a substrate for fungal growth were also measured. From the DPPH assay, we have found that both EOs (TTEO, HPEO) exhibited strong antioxidant activity (64.94 ±7.34%; 70.36 ±1.57%, respectively). The values for bread MC and aw were 43.01 ±0.341% and 0.947 ±0.006, respectively. Our results suggest that HPEO is the only weak inhibitor of P. citrinum and P. crustosum colony growths. Also, the highest concentrations of TTEO display only the weak capability of mycelial growth inhibition of P. citrinum and P. crustosum. By contrast, the colony growth of P. expansum was enhanced by both EOs at all levels used. In conclusion, the application of both EOs in the vapor phase against selected Penicillium species seems not to be a promising alternative to chemical inhibitors used for bread preservation.

Avocado (Persea americana Mill.) is grown for its nutritious fruit. However, the quantity and quality of these fruits are threatened by some fungal organisms which can cause health complications when it is consumed by man. DNA extraction provides a unique tool for identification of organisms. This study was conducted to isolate and identify fungal species associated with avocado fruit using both morphological and molecular techniques. Fungal species were isolated from Persea americana purchased from Choba market, Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria using Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) as a growth medium. The morphology of isolated fungi on PDA were cotton-like blackish grey spots, white villous colonies, greyish powdery spores and black spores for isolates 1 to 4 respectively. Extraction of DNA from fungal isolates was carried out using Zymo Fungal/Bacteria DNA Miniprep Kit. PCR amplification of the ITS1-2 regions of isolates was carried out using fungal universal primer pair; ITS4 and ITS5.PCR amplification of the ITS1-2 gene sequences yielded amplicons between 537-580 base pairs. PCR products were sequenced and the sequencing result after BLAST search revealed the identity of the four fungal species as follows: Lasiodiplodia theobromae, Fusarium proliferatum, Penicillium sp. and Aspergillus niger. This study will promote the knowledge of specific fungal species associated with Persea americanna and help plant pathologists to proffer preventive and control measures to enhance fruit protection and yield quality.

Penicillium is a widely explored genus due to its chemical diversity and associated biological properties; in addition, it represents an important source for cytotoxic compounds with good application perspectives. Based on these aspects, in this review, Penicillium compounds that presented activity against human leukemia cell lines are being listed and discussed. For this, a careful bibliographic survey was carried out in the main electronic databases, i.e. Scopus, SciFinder, Web of Science and Pubmed. Between 1984 and 2020, thirty seven original papers were selected, when using the search terms Penicillium and leukemia. The occurrence of l-asparaginase produced by some Penicillium spp. was also highlighted since this enzyme is being employed for acute lymphoblastic leukemia and lymphosarcoma therapies. Therefore, this overview aims to demonstrate the potential of metabolites biosynthesized by Penicillium fungi which can be applied in human leukemia therapies and opportunities for designing new lead compounds.

Bozcaada which is a province of Çanakkale, Turkey, is located between the 390 48 north parallel and 260 east meridians. The largest livelihood of Bozcaada is viticulture. Therefore, in our study, microbial load, and mould diversity of the Çavuş (table) and Karalahna (wine) grapes which are endemic to the island were evaluated, and ochratoxin production potentials of Aspergillus isolates were investigated by HPLC. A total of 6 vineyards with Çavuş and Karalahna grapes were sampled in 2015 and 2016. Total aerobic mesophilic bacteria count of grapes ranged between 0.00 and 4.21 log CFU/g, yeast load between 0.00 and 2.66 log CFU/g and mould load between 1.67 and 3.20 log CFU/g. A total of 2264 mould isolates were taken from samples. All isolates were identified at the genus level. Aspergillus spp. and Penicillium spp. were the most isolated species in 2015, while Alternaria spp. and Cladosporium spp. were the most isolated species in 2016. It was determined that 13.78% (312) of the isolates were Aspergillus spp., 54 of these isolates, have been selected and identified at the species level. Twenty-one of the black Aspergillus isolates were identified as A. niger / A. acidus, twenty-four of them were A. carbonarius and one of them is A. ibericus. The two white isolates were found to be A. candidus, the creamy brownish-spore forming isolate was A. terreus, and three green isolates were identified as A. flavus, A. calidoustus and A. sydowii. Six isolates (4 A. niger, 1 A. calidoustus, and 1 A. sydowii) were producing OTA. The amounts of ochratoxins varied from 0.80 to 74.01 ng/g.

Biopreservation is defined as using microbes, their constituents, or both to control spoilage while satisfying consumer demand for clean-label products. The study objective was to investigate the efficacy of bacterial cultures in biopreserving cottage cheese against postprocessing fungal contamination. Cottage cheese curd and dressing were sourced from a manufacturer in New York State. Dressing was inoculated with 3 different commercial protective cultures—PC1 (mix of Lacticaseibacillus spp. and Lactiplantibacillus spp.), PC2 (Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus), and PC3 (Lactic. rhamnosus)—following the manufacturer recommended dosage and then mixed with curd. A control with no protective culture was included. Nine species of yeast (Candida zeylanoides, Clavispora lusitaniae, Debaryomyces hansenii, Debaryomyces prosopidis, Kluyveromyces marxianus, Meyerozyma guilliermondii, Pichia fermentans, Rhodotorula mucilaginosa, and Torulaspora delbrueckii) and 11 species of mold (Aspergillus cibarius, Aureobasidium pullulans, Penicillium chrysogenum, Penicillium citrinum, Penicillium commune, Penicillium decumbens, Penicillium roqueforti, Mucor genevensis, Mucor racemosus, Phoma dimorpha, and Trichoderma amazonicum) were included in the study. Fungi strains were previously isolated from dairy processing environments and were inoculated onto the cheese surface at a rate of 20 cfu/g. Cheese was stored at 6 ± 2°C. Yeast levels were enumerated at 0, 7, 14, and 21 d postinoculation. Mold growth was visually observed on a weekly basis through d 42 of storage and imaged. Overall, the protective cultures were limited in their ability to delay the outgrowth in cottage cheese, with only 8 of the 20 fungal strains showing an effect of the cultures compared with the control. The protective cultures were not very effective against yeast, with only PC1 able to delay the outgrowth of 3 strains: D. hansenii, Tor. delbrueckii, and Mey. guilliermondii. The efficacy of these protective cultures against molds in cottage cheese was more promising, with all protective cultures showing the ability to delay spoilage of at least 1 mold strain. Both PC1 and PC2 were able to delay Pen. chrysogenum and Pho. dimorpha outgrowth, and PC1 also delayed Pen. commune, Pen. decumbens, and Pen. roqueforti to different extents compared with the controls. This study demonstrates that commercial lactic acid bacteria cultures vary in their performance to delay mold and yeast outgrowth, and thus each protective culture should be evaluated against the specific strains of fungi of concern within each specific dairy facility.

Tomato fruit represent a valuable but perishable commodity due to postharvest fungal spoilage. In the present investigation, greenhouse-grown tomatoes were analysed, particularly for the contamination by mycotoxigenic fungi. Collected isolates were characterized by morphological features and sequencing of barcoding genes. Alternaria, Aspergillus, and Penicillium proved to be the most represented genera. Particularly, Alternaria strains were mostly A. alternata morphotype alternata, genetically able to produce alternariol and alternariol monomethyl ether. Aspergillus strains were divided into yellow and black aspergilli; the former included the species A. westerdijkiae, A. ochraceus, and A. occultus, able to produce ochratoxin A (OTA), the latter included an A. welwitschiae strain, genetically able to produce OTA and fumonisins. Most Penicillium strains were represented by P. olsonii, not able to produce regulated mycotoxins. Commercial Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) and biostimulant formulations were tested for controlling those pathogens and related decays. Potassium bicarbonate and the combination peracetic acid+hydrogen peroxide proved to completely prevent fungal growth. The same formulations were tested on tomato fruit against A. alternata morphotype alternata, which proved to be the most aggressive pathogen. Tests confirmed potassium bicarbonate and the combination peracetic acid+hydrogen peroxide as effective against disease incidence and severity, particularly when applied by dipping. These promising results support their use in larger-scale trials.

Cheddar cheese proteolysis were accelerated employing Penicillium candidum PCA1/TT031 protease into cheese curd. In the present study, several of the significant factors such as protease purification factor (PF), protease concentration and ripening time were optimized via the response surface methodology (RSM). The ideal accelerated Cheddar cheese environment consisted of 3.12 PF, 0.01% (v/v) protease concentration and 0.6/3 months ripening time at 10 °C. The RSM models was verified to be the most proper methodology for the maintain of chosen Cheddar cheese. Under this experimental environment, the pH, acid degree value (ADV), moisture, water activity (aw), soluble nitrogen (SN)%, fat and overall acceptability were found to be 5.4, 6.6, 35%, 0.9348, 18.8%, 34% and 13.6, respectively of ideal Cheddar cheese. Furthermore, the predicted and experimental results were in significant agreement, which confirmed the validity and reliability of the suggested method. In spite of the difference between the ideal and commercial Cheddar cheese in the concentration of some of amino acids and free fatty acids, the sensory evaluation did not show any significant difference in aroma profile between them. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13568-021-01205-9.

Enzymatic conversion of corn fiber to fermentable sugars is beneficial to improving the economic efficiency of corn processing. In this work, the filamentous fungus Penicillium oxalicum was found to secrete enzymes for efficient saccharification of un-pretreated corn fiber. Separate engineering of transcriptional activators ClrB, XlnR, and AraR led to enhanced production of different sets of lignocellulolytic enzymes. Particularly, the enzymes produced by XlnR- and AraR-engineered strains showed a synergistic effect in corn fiber saccharification. Combinatorial engineering of all three activators generated a strain MCAX with 3.1- to 51.0-fold increases in lignocellulolytic enzyme production compared with the parent strain. In addition, the enzymes of strain MCAX released significantly more fermentable sugars from corn fiber than those of the parent strain at the same protein dosage. The results suggest that this strain has potential for on-site production of enzymes for corn fiber saccharification.