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Black rice (Zizania aqatica) is famous for its high nutritional value. Other names given for this rice are forbidden rice, emperor’s rice and royal’s rice. Mainly this rice is originated from Asian countries. The richest country in cultivation of black rice is China (62%) followed by Sri Lanka (8.6 %), Indonesia (6.2%) and India holds the 4th placed with (5.1%) follows by different countries. It contains a high amount of antioxidant which is known as anthocyanin and tocopherols (which is one of the most powerful antioxidants and it is also known as vitamin E). Foods which consist of antioxidant are black in colour or dark purple. It is also rich in fibre, protein, carbohydrates, potassium and B vitamins respectively. Activity of “free radicals” in our body is naturally dominated by another group of chemical compounds called ‘antioxidant’ which are present in our regularly consumed food. Therefore, consuming of black rice in your regular diet can prevent many non-communicable diseases (NCD) like occurrence of cancer cells, atherosclerosis, hypertension, diabetes, osteoporosis, asthma, digestive health, reduces stroke risk level in women. Black rice is also use in developing a new novel food product.

Mother Nature is an indispensable source of bioactive natural products. Bioactive secondary metabolites have played a crucial role in the drug development and discovery process; mainly, anticancer and antibiotic molecules are extensively enriched with molecules of natural origin. Anthocyanins are water-soluble secondary metabolites found in most species in the plant domain, especially flowers, fruits, and tubers. These natural vacuolar pigments belong to the chemical class of phenolic moieties, which are responsible for the shiny orange, red, blue, pink, and violet colors in the fruits, flowers, and vegetables. Chemically, anthocyanins comprise a core structure in the form of flavylium cation or 2-phenylbenzopyrylium, and these natural colorants are polyhydroxy and polymethoxy analouges of this flavylium cation and can have sugar moieties or acylated groups linked at different positions. Currently, these molecules have raised a growing interest because of their wide range of colors, innocuous and beneficial health effects, and commercial application in functional foods, nutraceuticals, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. However, interest in anthocyanin derivatives has noticeably enhanced in recent years due to their higher stability, improved bioavailability in biological matrices, and better use in food matrices and cosmetic products. Due to the enormous potential of natural anthocyanins and their derivatives, this review tries to cover syntheses of anthocyanins and their analogues, chemical derivatization of anthocyanins, and anticancer activities, such as breast, colorectal, leukemia, lung, prostate, and skin cancer of anthocyanins efficiently.

The present review has analyzed the scientific literature, available in the PubMed and Scopus databases, in order to summarize the current state of diet anthocyanin research in breast cancer (BC) and colorectal cancer (CRC) animal models but also for up-to-date human studies. For CRC, 28 preclinical and 9 clinical studies were selected in line with our search query in science databases. In relation to BC, 14 preclinical and 5 clinical studies were selected. Remarkably, all the preclinical studies, to a greater or lesser degree, suggested a chemoprevention effect of anthocyanin in BC/CRC rodent models. These encouraging results from animal models are not extrapolated to the same degree to human studies where, from the similar theoretical daily doses of anthocyanins in these studies, the opposite results were reported. Nevertheless, it is worth mentioning that the anthocyanin doses in the human studies carried out recently are low if we consider the estimated exposure to anthocyanins issued by the European Food Safety Agency (EFSA) or extremely low if we consider with caution the human equivalent dose based on body surface area from the preclinical dosage regimes used. Therefore, although some clinical data has demonstrated an inverse relation between anthocyanin consumption and BC/CRC, this could, in fact, be more relevant if we increase the daily human anthocyanin dose (as observed in animal model dose-effect studies) while new toxicological data for this flavonoid subtype are brought to light.

This study was conducted to find an alternative to synthetic fungicides currently used in the control of Rhizoctonia solani damping off in common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). The efficacy of seed presoaking in Vitex agnus-castus essential oils and foliar sprays with 50 ppm ZnO NPs in controlling the pathogen was evaluated under greenhouse conditions. The minimum inhibitory concentration of V. agnus-castus essential oils (400 μl/L) caused a significant decrease in mycelial growth and the productivity of cell wall degrading enzymes (CWDEs) of R. solani in vitro test. And also, Polygalacturonase, polymethyl-galacturonase, endoglucanase and β-glucosidase retained only about of its relative enzyme activities 10.5, 14.9, 8.8, 0%, respectively. The combination between seed presoaking in Vitex agnus-castus essential oils and foliar spray with ZnO NPs was found to be more effectivethan each of them separately, in reduction of disease incidence and enhance the seed germination percentage from 62% in infected untreated plants to 87% in infected plants exposed to dual treatment. Our results revealed that the content of enzymatic antioxidants (catalase, peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase and superoxide dismutase), non-enzymatic antioxidants (glutathione, anthocyanin and ascorbic acid), total flavonoids, total phenolics, tannins, proline, glycine betaine, ferric reducing antioxidant power, total antioxidant capacity and mineral composition (potassium, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium and zinc) were significantly higher in the infected plants received the dual treatment as compared with the untreated infected plants. Moreover, CWDEs, H2O2 content and lipid peroxidation significantly decreased in infected plants received the dual treatment as compared with the untreated infected plants.

Genetic variation is fundamental for breeding drought-adapted cultivars with economic traits. The objective of this study was to determine the response of selected okra genotypes to drought stress using yield and yield-related traits to identify and select candidate genotypes for drought tolerance breeding. Twenty-six okra genotypes were evaluated in glasshouse (GH) and field (FLD) environments under drought-stressed (DS) and non-stressed (NS) conditions using a 13 × 2 α lattice design with two replications. Data were collected on the following phenotypic traits: number of branches per plant (NB), plant height (PH), days to maturity (DTM), stem diameter (SD), fresh pod length (FPL), dry pod weight per plant (DPW), dry pod length per plant (DPL), number of seeds per plant (NSP), number of pods per plant (NPP), pod yield per plant (YPP) and anthocyanin (ATY) pigmentation of the stem. Significant (P

Objectives Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) mucilage obtained from its dried fruits was evaluated to check the proximate composition and physicochemical properties. Methods Commercially available date palm mucilage was precipitated using ethanol. Both (crude and purified) mucilage samples were subjected for proximate, physiochemical, biochemical and antioxidant activity using standard experimental protocols. Elemental analysis of crude date palm mucilage was also performed using LIBS. Results Ethanol was used to purify the mucilage (58.4% yield). Proximate analysis was carried out on crude and purified mucilages showing crude fat, crude protein, crude fiber, total carbohydrates, nitrogen free extract and total energy in purified mucilage were more than the crude mucilage. Moisture and ash contents were found more in crude mucilage than the purified mucilage. Laser introduced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) detected Zn, Mg, Mn, K, Na, Cu, Fe and Ca metals as components of mucilage. Biochemical profiling indicated that crude and purified mucilage have proteins, protease, superoxide dismutase, catalase, peroxidase, amylase, ascorbate peroxidase, free amino acids, total soluble sugars, reducing sugars, non-reducing sugars, total anthocyanin, free anthocyanin, total flavonoid contents and total phenolic contents. Conclusion The study shows that date palm mucilage could be potentially used as pharmaceutical and medicinal ingredient due to presence of bioactive compounds and its physicochemical properties.

Blueberry (Vaccinium ashei) is a popular fruit due to its high anthocyanin content. This study aimed to analyze the transcriptome profile of V. ashei cv. ‘Brightwell’ fruits at different stages of development. A total of 314.26 GB of clean data were obtained and de novo assembled into 254 196 unigenes. In comparisons between the early and late stages of fruit ripening, 27 genes (including PAL, CHS, F3H, F3′H, F3′5′H, LDOX, etc.) were found to cover the main steps in the anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway. Most of these genes were highly expressed in the late stage of fruit development, suggesting that anthocyanins mainly accumulate in the late stage. During the late stage of fruit development, most structural and regulatory genes such as F3′5′H and F3′H, which are involved in the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway, were upregulated, causing the fruit to turn blue. Decreased expression of a large number of chloroplast-related genes during the fruit ripening period could explain why the green fruit color fades over time. Additionally, abscisic acid and ethylene may play positive roles in promoting fruit ripening and anthocyanin accumulation. This research reveals the transcriptomic characteristics of immature and mature fruits and enhances our understanding of the molecular mechanisms of anthocyanin biosynthesis and accumulation in blueberry fruit.

Tissue culture biotechnology has been widely used to produce secondary metabolites. Anthocyanin as the secundary metabolic content in Dragon Fruits was thought to be able to liberate free radicals and have pharmacological activities as antioxidants and anti-aging. Anthocyanin can be produced in vitrothrough callus production by tissue culture. The study aims to produce callus cultures that have the potensial to produce secondary metabolites. This research was conducted in the tissue culture laboratory. The study used a completely randomized design method with a factorial pattern. Factor 1 : Type of explants ( M1): Explants from young shoots; (M2) Explants from dragon fruit callus. Factor II: The number of explant each culture tube. There are J1,J2, 3 and J4 with (1;2;3;4 explants in each culture tube. Murashige and Skoog + 15 % sucrose were used as media culture. The results of study showed that: callus began to form at 7 weeks after planting. (1) MS Media with the addition of 15 % sucrose had a significant effect on increasing the anthocyanin content in the callus of Dragon fruit formed. (2) Callus formed from Shoot Dragon fruit contain Anthocyanin 0,74 % ; (3) The Callus formed from Shoot and callus Dragon Fruits contain secondary martabolites of Anthocyanins ranging from 0,68%–0,76%. The highest Anthocyanin content (0,76%) was produced in treatmant J3 ( 3 Explant each culture tube)

Anthocyanins are a group of phytochemicals responsible for the purple or red color of plants. Additionally, they are recognized to have health promoting functions including anti-cardiovascular, anti-thrombotic, anti-diabetic, antimicrobial, neuroprotective, and visual protective effect as well as anti-cancer activities. Thus, consumption of anthocyanin supplement or anthocyanin-rich foods has been recommended to prevent the risk of development of chronic diseases. However, the low stability and bioavailability of anthocyanins limit the efficacy and distribution of anthocyanins in human body. Thus, strategies to achieve target site-local delivery with good bioavailability and controlled release rate are necessary. This review introduced and discussed the latest advanced techniques of designing lipid-based, polysaccharide-based and protein-based complexes, nano-encapsulation and exosome to overcome the limitation of anthocyanins. The improved bioavailability and controlled release of anthocyanins have great significance for gastrointestinal tract absorption, transepithelial transportation and cellular uptake. The techniques of applying different biocompatible materials and modifying the solubility of anthocyanins complex could achieve target site-local delivery with negligible degradation and good bioavailability in human body.

Background Fruits are vital food resources as they are loaded with bioactive compounds varying with different stages of ripening. As the fruit ripens, a dynamic color change is observed from green to yellow to red due to the biosynthesis of pigments like chlorophyll, carotenoids, and anthocyanins. Apart from making the fruit attractive and being a visual indicator of the ripening status, pigments add value to a ripened fruit by making them a source of nutraceuticals and industrial products. As the fruit matures, it undergoes biochemical changes which alter the pigment composition of fruits. Results The synthesis, degradation and retention pathways of fruit pigments are mediated by hormonal, genetic, and environmental factors. Manipulation of the underlying regulatory mechanisms during fruit ripening suggests ways to enhance the desired pigments in fruits by biotechnological interventions. Here we report, in-depth insight into the dynamics of a pigment change in ripening and the regulatory mechanisms in action. Conclusions This review emphasizes the role of pigments as an asset to a ripened fruit as they augment the nutritive value, antioxidant levels and the net carbon gain of fruits; pigments are a source for fruit biofortification have tremendous industrial value along with being a tool to predict the harvest. This report will be of great utility to the harvesters, traders, consumers, and natural product divisions to extract the leading nutraceutical and industrial potential of preferred pigments biosynthesized at different fruit ripening stages.

Anthocyanins, a class of flavonoid compounds that provide pigmentation to plant organs, are beneficial components of the human diet and there is an interest in understanding the regulation of their formation in crop plants. The apple cultivar ‘May’ represents an excellent model for the study of anthocyanin metabolism due to the spatial color pattern of its flesh, which transitions sequentially from red to white to red again, from the outside to the inside of the apple fruit. To screen the transcription factors involved in the anthocyanin pathway, transcriptomes from differently colored sections of ‘May’ fruits were analyzed by RNA sequencing. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) database was used to analyse the gene expression data. The results suggested differentially expressed genes (DEGs) that are related to phytohormones are involved in regulating anthocyanin biosynthesis. K-means clustering analysis revealed 167 common DEGs between different sections of fruit with the same expression pattern as candidates for regulating anthocyanin synthesis. Further analysis showed that nine of the 167 DEGs were annotated as transcription factors and quantitative real time PCR (qRT-PCR) confirmed that their expression was obviously higher in red regions of the fruit, consistent with their roles as hub genes that regulate anthocyanin synthesis. This study provides valuable results for future studies of anthocyanin synthesis in apple fruit.

Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) which also called Gratzel cells are a novel type of solar cells. Their advantages are mainly due to low cost production, low energy payback time, flexibility, performance also at diffuse light and multicolor options. DSSCs become more and more interesting since huge variety of dyes including natural dyes can be used as light harvesting elements. Natural dyes are environmentally and economically superior to synthetic-based dyes because these are nontoxic and cheap. Different natural dyes and their mixture extracts have been prepared and used as sensitizers in the fabrication of dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). The dyes have been extracted from plant leaves including lemon, parsley, spinach, hibiscus-rosa sinensis, pomegranate fruit and vegetable beetroot. This article showed the effect of single and mixture natural dyes on the DSSC performance. The single dyes extracted from parsley, lemon and spinach leaves chlorophyll and hibiscus-rosa sinensis, pomegranate juice anthocyanin and beetroot betalain. The dyes mixture was prepared by mixing from both chlorophyll & anthocyanin and chlorophyll & betalain. The absorption spectra of these dyes have been investigated by UV–VIS spectrophotometry. The dyes have shown absorption in broad range of the visible region (400–700 nm) of the solar spectrum and appreciable adsorption onto the semiconductor (TiO2) surface. The adsorption of the dyes mixture onto the TiO2 electrode has higher absorbance than single dye and improved the conversion efficiency of solar cell.

Beginning of industrialization accelerates the heavy metal pollution in the biosphere. Plant being the immovable entity utilizes different mechanisms to flee from unfavourable conditions. To alleviate toxic impact of metals like cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb), phytohormones such as indole acetic acid (IAA) has been applied exogenously. This manuscript aims to evaluate the significant change occurring in biochemical parameters of Indian mustard (Brassica napus) grown under individual and combined treatments of IAA with Cd and Pb. Herbicidal potential of treated Brassica extracts were evaluated on growth and development of Anagallis arvensis. Quantum yield parameters were more sensitive to Cd than Pb stress resulted in reduced photosynthetic pigments. However, exogenously applied IAA together with Cd and Pb considerably improved the level of photosynthetic attributes along with reduced accumulation of Cd and Pb in Brassica plant. Cd and Pb enhanced the activities of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and antioxidant machinery. However, addition of IAA with Cd and Pb mitigated the effect of heavy metals on antioxidant system. Moreover, activity of the phenylalanine ammonia lyase enzyme and the defensive metabolites (phenolic, flavonoid and anthocyanin compounds) were boosted under individual treatments of Cd and Pb responsible for increasing herbicidal potential of Brassica plant. Our results exhibited essentiality of IAA in mitigating Cd and Pb stress in Brassica through up-regulated mechanisms of the antioxidant system for balancing ROS related injuries. Increased metabolites enhancing herbicidal potential of Brassica napus against Anagallis weed were also observed.

Anthocyanins are the primary pigments contributing to the variety of flower colors among angiosperms and are considered essential for survival and reproduction. Anthocyanins are members of the flavonoids, a broader class of secondary metabolites, of which there are numerous structural genes and regulators thereof. In western European populations of Lysimachia arvensis, there are blue- and orange-petaled individuals. The proportion of blue-flowered plants increases with temperature and daylength yet decreases with precipitation. Here, we performed a transcriptome analysis to characterize the coding sequences of a large group of flavonoid biosynthetic genes, examine their expression and compare our results to flavonoid biochemical analysis for blue and orange petals. Among a set of 140 structural and regulatory genes broadly representing the flavonoid biosynthetic pathway, we found 39 genes with significant differential expression including some that have previously been reported to be involved in similar flower color transitions. In particular, F3′5′H and DFR, two genes at a critical branchpoint in the ABP for determining flower color, showed differential expression. The expression results were complemented by careful examination of the SNPs that differentiate the two color types for these two critical genes. The decreased expression of F3′5′H in orange petals and differential expression of two distinct copies of DFR, which also exhibit amino acid changes in the color-determining substrate specificity region, strongly correlate with the blue to orange transition. Our biochemical analysis was consistent with the transcriptome data indicating that the shift from blue to orange petals is caused by a change from primarily malvidin to largely pelargonidin forms of anthocyanins. Overall, we have identified several flavonoid biosynthetic pathway loci likely involved in the shift in flower color in L. arvensis and even more loci that may represent the complex network of genetic and physiological consequences of this flower color polymorphism.

Multiplex 330 (MX) is a portable, non-invasive fluorescence sensor that provides different multiparametric indices that are sensitive to the concentration of chlorophylls, flavonols, and anthocyanins on the leaf surface. This study investigated the use of these indices to assess the variability on free volatile composition of grapes (Vitis vinifera L.) in the field as well as other components of their quality potential in vineyards affected by iron deficiency chlorosis (IDC). Twenty non-irrigated Tempranillo/110 Richter vineyard subzones from non-affected to moderately affected by IDC were monitored in Ribera del Duero area (Spain) during two seasons. The results indicated that MX can characterize the spatial variation of leaf pigment concentrations, agronomic performance, and grape quality in vineyards affected by IDC. The MX indices measured at the leaf level close to harvest had better predictive values for the concentrations of free alcohols, volatile acids, C13-norisoprenoids, esters and acetates in the must than vine vigor, size or degree of technological maturity of the grapes. Our study demonstrates that the MX indices to estimate leaf pigment concentrations can be helpful to assess the technological maturity and free volatile composition of wine grapes in vineyards affected by IDC; nevertheless, the efficacy of the indexes may vary according to the year season., This work was supported by INIA and the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (RTA2014- 00077-C02-02), and Junta de Castilla y León / FEDER Funds (VA013P17). We thank Bodegas Emilio Moro S.L. their cooperation in carrying out this investigation

BACKGROUND During winemaking, after extraction from the skins, anthocyanins and tannins adsorb onto the pulp flesh cell walls. This study aims to quantify the amounts adsorbed and their impact on wine composition, the impact of variety and ethanol on adsorption, and whether the presence of anthocyanins plays a role and impacts tannin adsorption. RESULTS Anthocyanin and tannin fractions obtained by mimicking winemaking conditions were mixed with fresh flesh cell walls of two varieties: Carignan and Grenache. Adsorption isotherms were measured. Adsorption of tannins was higher with Carignan than with Grenache and decreased when the ethanol content increased. In comparison, anthocyanins were adsorbed in small amounts, and their mixing with tannins had no impact on their adsorption. The differences were related to differences in pulp cell wall composition, particularly in terms of extensins and arabinans. CONCLUSION Adsorption of tannins, which can reach 50% of the initial amount, depends on the pulp cell wall composition. This needs to be further investigated. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Purpose: The rejection of fruits because of insufficient purple colour in the exocarp has limited the profitability of ‘Hass’ avocado (Persea americana Mill) fruit. Thus, this study investigated whether glucose infusion through the pedicel can trigger anthocyanin pigment synthesis and accumulation of early harvested ‘Hass’ avocado exocarp, thereby resulting in improved colour development during ripening. Research method: ‘Hass’ fruit were continuously infused through the pedicel with distilled water and different glucose concentrations; 0.05, 0.13, 0.28 mM and control, therefore, assessed for fruit quality; firmness loss, visual colour) chromaticity parameters (lightness-L*, chroma-C* and hue-h°) and exocarp pigments (chlorophyll, carotenoids, anthocyanin and cyanidin-3-O-glucoside) during ripening at 25°C. Findings: Infusion of glucose and distilled water extended the ripening period by one day. Chlorophyll degradation was delayed in response to glucose infusions and distilled water compared to control. Results indicated that 0.05 and 0.13 mM glucose infusion increased anthocyanin and cyanidin-3-O-glucoside accumulation in the exocarp, correspondingly improving exocarp colour (visual colour) after 8 days at 25°C when compared with 0.28 mM, distilled water and control. Limitations: Anthocyanin-regulating enzymes and genes of the ‘Hass’ avocado fruit have not yet been identified. Originality/Value: This study provides insight into the possible role of C6 sugars in ‘Hass’ avocado fruit during postharvest ripening.By encouraging carbohydrate accumulation in the avocado fruit exocarp, postharvest poor exocarp colouration could be controlled.

Rhododendron delavayi is a popular ornamental plant with globular flowers noted for their bright red color, but very limited studies have been reported on its flower color formation. In this study, we successfully isolated a novel DFR gene (RdDFR1) from red flowers of Rhododendron delavayi. Multiple sequence alignments revealed that RdDFR1 had the conserved NADP and substrate binding domain, and was classified into Asn-type DFR. Meanwhile, quantitative real-time PCR analysis showed that transcript levels of RdDFR1 matched the accumulation patterns of anthocyanins during flower development, hinting its potential role involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis. Then in vitro enzymatic analysis indicated that recombinant RdDFR1 protein could catalyze the production of leucoanthocyanidins from dihydroquercetin and dihydromyricetin. Furthermore, the in planta assay, using Arabidopsis thaliana dfr mutant (tt3-1) and tobacco, displayed that RdDFR1 transgenes recovered the defective proanthocyanidin and anthocyanin biosynthesis at seed coats, hypocotyl as well as cotyledon, and altered the flowers color of tobacco from pale pink to dark pink which demonstrated its function as dihydroflavonol 4-reductase in vivo. In summary, our findings suggest that RdDFR1 plays a crucial role in the biosynthesis of anthocyanin and will also make a contribution to understand the mechanisms of flower color formation in Rhododendron delavayi.

Fragaria × ananassa is a widely-consumed fruit worldwide, valued for its pleasant flavor and nutritional properties. However, its lack of fragrance, unlike wild strawberries, results in customer dissatisfaction. In this study, we tested whether the biofertilizer Saccharomyces cerevisiae can enhance the aroma of strawberry. We used different fertilization methods, namely, mycorrhizal fertilization (MF) and foliar fertilization (FF), to investigate the effects of S. cerevisiae on various characteristics of F. ananassa. The results showed that the application of yeast under MF significantly increased the amount of soluble sugars and total volatiles. However, no significant difference was detected in the anthocyanin content. The amount of total volatiles in fruits under different treatments was 18.17 (MF), 11.78 (FF), and 9.51 (control) μg·g−1 fresh weight (FW). The main volatiles obtained from the fruits under MF, FF, and control treatments were esters (51.45%, 44.39%, and 29.39%, respectively), alcohols (35.93%, 28.77%, and 6.58%, respectively), and aldehydes (5.86%, 18.31%, and 62.88%, respectively). The photosynthetic rate and intercellular CO2 concentration were significantly influenced by the utilization of yeast strains. The MF treatment with yeast resulted in higher photosynthetic rate, and the plants from the FF treatment recording the highest intercellular CO2 concentration. Integrating the data of metabolites, it was suggested that S. cerevisiae, by generating CO2, promotes photosynthesis, leading to the increased sugar content in the fruits, which subsequently enhances the content of 3(2H)-Furanone, 4-methoxy-2, 5-dimethyl (DMMF) and phenylalanine-derived volatiles.

Strawberry anthocyanins often undergo chemical degradation during storage, which leads to color fading and bioactivity loss. These changes are increased by ascorbic acid, which accelerates anthocyanin degradation. The present study investigated the effect of citric acid as an alternative to ascorbic acid to adjust strawberry nectar pH. Several additions were also used as co-pigment sources to enhance color stability during a five-month dark storage period at ambient temperatures. The results showed that citric acid increased the stability of total and monomeric anthocyanin and reduced the formation of polymeric color. The fortification of the strawberry nectar with 0.2% green tea extract, 3% hot rosella extract, and 0.5% low-methoxyl pectin in the presence of citric acid led to enhance strawberry nectar color, high stability, and reduce anthocyanin degradation.

Background Blueberries are rich in anthocyanins, which have been studied for many years. Interest in these compounds has grown attributing to their possible therapeutic and beneficial effects, among which are the reduction of coronary heart disease, anticancer/antitumor, anti-inflammatory, and antidiabetic effects, as well as the improvement of visual acuity and cognitive behavior. However, the chemical instability of anthocyanins is one of the major limitations on their application. Anthocyanins are susceptible to degrade, leading to the loss of color. Several environmental factors could significantly influence the stability of anthocyanins, including temperature, light, oxygen, enzymes, and pH. The instability of anthocyanins would likely result in their poor bioavailability. Scope and approach This review provides critical information for a better understanding of the bioavailability of blueberry anthocyanins. Furthermore, recent findings regarding different approaches to increase the bioavailability of blueberry anthocyanins will be discussed. More than half of the nearly 100 papers cited in this review were published in the last decade. Key Findings and Conclusions The improvement in anthocyanin stability is an important problem that needs to be solved urgently. A major challenge in food applications is to find a strategy to overcome this obstacle of anthocyanin's instability, which could lead to low bioavailability. Therefore, the utilization of different formulations such as nanoparticulate systems, microencapsulation, and protein complexes could potentially improve the bioavailability after ingestion and during digestion. Developing effective novel systems to increase stability of anthocyanins and thus its bioavailability in the human body following ingestion, can enhance its nutraceutical use in the context of prevention and/or cure of diseases.

BACKGROUND During the storage and processing of Lilium bulbs, the phenomenon of violet-red colour change in Lilium bulbs which is different from enzymatic browning often exists, but the specific mechanism is not clear. RESULTS In this study, we chose six-year-old Lilium davidii var. unicolor to study. Bulb scales which were sealed in polyethylene film plastic bags were exposed to room temperature (20 ± 2 °C) treatment for 5 days (12 h of sunshine and 12 h of sun shading). Metabolomics and transcript omics were conducted to elucidate the mechanism of violet-red color change in Lilium bulbs. The results showed that the color of Lilium bulb scales was obvious violet-red in 5 days; chromaticity value measuring showed the a values had the most significant upward trend. Metabolomics analysis showed many metabolites produced from the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway showed an upward trend. Transcriptome revealed that flavonoid biosynthesis pathway was significantly enriched, of which 20 synthesis genes were highly regulated expression. Metabolome and transcriptome co-analysis that up-regulated expression of flavonoids synthesis genes including ten chalcone synthase, two anthocyanidin reductase, and chalcone isomerase, 3'-hydroxylase, 3-hydroxylase, dihydroflavonol 4-reductase, anthocyanin synthase, anthocyanidin 3-O-glucosyltransferase and flavonol synthase were highly positive correlated with epicatechin, rutin and cyanidin 3-rutinoside. CONCLUSION Phenotypic, metabolomic and transcriptomic analysis indicated that the up-related expression levels of genes and accumulated flavonoids related to flavonoid metabolism contributed greatly to the violet-red colour change in Lilium bulbs. The results of this study will deepen our understanding of the color formation of violet-red Lilium bulbs and provide the basis for future storage and preservation of Lilium bulbs. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Anthocyanins are important pigments that contribute to fruit quality. The regulation of anthocyanin biosynthesis by several transcription factors via sophisticated regulatory networks has been studied in various plants. Brassinosteroids (BRs), a new class of plant hormone, are involved in regulating anthocyanin biosynthesis in fruits. Furthermore, light directly affects the synthesis and distribution of anthocyanins. Here, we summarize the recent progress toward understanding the impact of BR and light on anthocyanin biosynthesis in climacteric and non-climacteric fruits. We review the BR and light signaling pathways and highlight the important transcription factors that are associated with the synthesis of anthocyanins, such as BZR1 (brassinazole-resistant 1, BR signaling pathway), HY5 (elongated hypocotyl 5) and COP1 (constitutively photomorphogenic 1, light signal transduction pathway), which bind with the target genes involved in anthocyanin synthesis. In addition, we review the mechanism by which light signals interact with hormonal signals to regulate anthocyanin biosynthesis.

One of the potential methods utilized for dye degradation is photocatalitic, due to its low cost, highly effective, and environmentally friendly. Effectivenes of TiO2 photocatalysts can be enhanced by adding a dye sensitizer. Dye-sensitizer material absorbs visible light to facilitate electron excitation process. Addition of dye-sensitizer on TiO2 photocatalyst promotes it to be more responsive to visible light. Natural anthocyanin dyes are often used as sensitizers of TiO2 semiconductors. Anthocyanins are, usually in the purple to the red color range, a group of natural dyes found in the flowers, leaves, and fruit of plants. The essential principles of dye sensitization to TiO2 have been explored in this review. It is feasible to reduce the band gap energy in the TiO2 photocatalyst by modifying it using a natural dye sensitized modification. Dye sensitizers on TiO2 nanotubes plate have the potential to be employed in a dye degradation photocatalytic system

In this study, the effects of spontaneous and pure yeast fermentation techniques on anthocyanins and colorless phenolics of Cabernet Sauvignon wines were investigated at the end of alcoholic fermentation and after six months of storage in a bottle. After alcoholic fermentation, 43.55% and 49.58% losses were occurred in monomeric anthocyanin contents of spontaneously and inoculated wines, respectively. Fermentation technique had a significant effect on the concentrations of Mv-3-Glu, Peo-3-Glu and Cy-3-Glu, and their concentrations were found to be significantly higher in spontaneously fermented wines. Regarding colorless phenolic compounds, concentrations of (+) gallic acid and (+) catechin were 19% and 26.8% higher in spontaneously fermented CS wines compared to inoculated wines. After six months of bottle storage, the concentration of anthocyanins showed a significant decrease. The losses in monomeric anthocyanin contents were 52% and 60% in spontaneous and inoculated wines, respectively. Concentrations of Mv-3-Glu, Peo-3-Glu and Del-3-Glu decreased by 48.9–52.6% in spontaneously fermented wines during 6 months of aging, while 56.7–63.2% losses were observed in inoculated wines. Unlike anthocyanins, total phenol contents of wines obtained by both techniques increased notably after six months of storage. 52% and 47.9% increases were observed in the gallic acid concentration of spontaneous and inoculated wines, respectively. However, there were significant decreases in the concentrations of (+) catechin, caffeic acid, syringic acid and p-coumaric acid at the end of storage.

Land contamination with Cd has become a global concern for food security. Chelates of micro-nutrients (including Zn) with amino acids have gained attention due to effective role of Zn and amino acid to alleviate Cd toxicity. Current work evaluated the role of zinc–lysine (Zn–Lys) seed priming concentrations (0, 0.5, 1, 1.5 ppm) on morpho-physio-biochemical attributes of two differentially Cd-tolerant wheat cultivars (Punjab-2011, Cd susceptible, Galaxy-2013, Cd tolerant) maintained with various Cd regimes (0, 15, 30, and 45 µM). Results depicted that varying levels of Cd caused significant reduction of growth attributes, whereas the contents of MDA, H2O2, antioxidants, proline, ascorbic acid, and anthocyanin were increased. Cadmium accumulation caused severe oxidative stress in both wheat cultivars where negative impacts were more apparent in cv. Punjab-2011 than cv. Galaxy-2013. Priming with Zn–Lys was found effective to minimize Cd adversities by improving morpho-physiological and antioxidant machinery while diminishing Cd accumulation in dose dependent and cultivar specific manner. Zn–Lys conferred substantial Cd tolerance to Cd-tolerant cv. Galaxy-2013 as compared to sensitive cv. Punjab-2011 due to higher retention of Zn and lysine amino acid which boosted the antioxidant activities, nutrients content, and photosynthetic pigments under applied Cd regimes. Among the used doses, 1.5 ppm concentration of Zn–Lys was found more effective treatment for improving Cd tolerance as compared to other Zn–Lys concentrations. Research outcomes are important with regard to understanding the contribution of morpho-physio-biochemical attributes of Cd-sensitive and Cd-tolerant wheat cultivars under Zn–Lys invigoration which may provide efficient approaches for Zn–Lys-mediated Cd tolerance.

The neurodegenerative disease is a vital threat to the elders, the incidence is increasing but the efficient therapy is rare. A feasible strategy to treat neurodegenerative diseases is dietary prevention. Among them, anthocyanins are a group of phytochemicals that have shown rising evidences of ameliorating neurodegenerative disease. This review summarized the neuroprotective effect of anthocyanins in vitro and in vivo and discussed the related pathways. Anthocyanins alleviated neurological dysfunction such as cognitive and memory functions via the protection of neurons, glial cells and hippocampal nerve cells against the damage of Aβ-proteins, glutamate, and lipopolysaccharides. In addition, anthocyanins reduced oxidative stress, suppressed inflammation, inhibited apoptosis in nerve cells. The neuroprotection of anthocyanin is also related to the intestinal metabolites. The human study is inadequate but the accumulated evidences indicated that anthocyanins could be the potential dietary supplement to prevent against neurodegenerative diseases.

14 Pág. Departamento de Tecnología de Alimentos​​, Background: Anthocyanins are a major class of plant phenolic pigments, responsible for the red, purple or blue color of leaves, flowers, tubers, fruits and certain vegetables. They are considered the largest and most important group of water-soluble pigments in nature and have been described to have multiple health-promoting properties. However, the bioavailability of anthocyanins is reportedly extremely low, affected by factors inherent to the molecule's characteristics, as well as by the effect of food processing, transformations during the digestive process and their levels in fruits. Scope and approach: This review aims to discuss current knowledge regarding the effects of technological processes used in the food industry on the stability, bioavailability and biological effect of anthocyanins. In addition, a review of new trends in the improvement of anthocyanin production in plants is presented, which outlines what has been reported about genes involved in the regulation and its expression. Key findings and conclusions: The alterations that anthocyanins suffer, which can affect their bioavailability and biological effects, do not take place solely during the digestion process, caused mainly by pH and intrinsic and bacterial enzymes, but also during the different processing methods that food-containing anthocyanins can undergo. Factors such as thermal and non-thermal processing, storage, oxidative degradation and encapsulation systems have been shown to closely influence anthocyanins' stability and biological effects. In recent times, genetic manipulation aiming at upregulating the gene expression of metabolic pathways has been used to improve fruit quality and anthocyanin content in plant foods, and may also contribute towards counteracting some of the indicated limitations., This work was supported by the Universidad de Las Américas (UDLA) (grant number AGR.JMA.20.05). The GIP-USAL is grateful to the Spanish Government for the funding received through the grants with reference nos. AGL2015-64522-C2 and PDI2019-106167RB-100. The authors also would like to thank Ms Helen Pugh for her extensive proof-reading of the manuscript.

The various monochromatic Light Emitting Diode (LED) lights are widely used in growth facility for cultivating various plants, particularly horticultural crops because of their higher luminous efficiency, lower radiation and power consumption than the traditional white fluorescent lamp light. However, considerable inconsistent effects have been reported in literature. We conducted a meta-analysis to assess the effects of different colors of LED light on plant growth, development and various traits. Compared to the light from white fluorescent lamps, the red LED light significantly changed 4 out 26 plant characteristics by at least 37%, and blue LED light significantly increased 5 of 26 assessed characteristics by 37% or more. The combination of red/blue LED lights only significantly increased dry weight by 161% among 25 plant characteristics analyzed. Compared to the white LED light, red LED light significantly decreased 2 of 9 plant characteristics by at least 36%, and blue LED light significantly decreased only 1 of 9 plant characteristics, total chlorophyll content, by 42%. In the moderators analyzed, plant taxonomic families significantly influenced the effects of LED lights on shoot dry weight, and plant life cycles and plant taxonomic families significantly affected the effect on stomatal conductance. Through systematic meta-analysis, we found that the effect of LED on plant growth and quality traits was species-specific, and the effect was affected by the cultivation conditions. Therefore, we suggest that researchers be more targeted to experiment, and collect traits associated with practical production, especially related to the quality of product data, such as carotenoids, anthocyanin and other antioxidant compounds. This article is to provide more data with practical application, guide the application of LED in horticultural plant factory.

An R2R3-MYB transcription factor, CmMYB9a, activates floral coloration in chrysanthemum by positively regulating CmCHS, CmDFR and CmFNS, but inhibiting the expression of CmFLS. Chrysanthemum is one of the most popular ornamental plants worldwide. Flavonoids, such as anthocyanins, flavones, and flavonols, are important secondary metabolites for coloration and are involved in many biological processes in plants, like petunia, snapdragon, Gerbera hybrida, as well as chrysanthemum. However, the metabolic regulation of flavonoids contributing to chrysanthemum floral coloration remains largely unexplored. Here, an R2R3-MYB transcription factor, CmMYB9a, was found to be involved in flavonoid biosynthesis. Phylogenetic analysis and amino acid sequence analysis suggested that CmMYB9a belonged to subgroup 7. Transient overexpression of CmMYB9a in flowers of chrysanthemum cultivar 'Anastasia Pink' upregulated the anthocyanin-related and flavone-related genes and downregulated CmFLS, which led to the accumulation of anthocyanins and flavones. We further demonstrated that CmMYB9a independently activates the expression of CmCHS, CmDFR and CmFNS, but inhibits the expression of CmFLS. Overexpression of CmMYB9a in tobacco resulted in increased anthocyanins and decreased flavonols in the petals by upregulating NtDFR and downregulating NtFLS. These results suggest that CmMYB9a facilitates metabolic flux into anthocyanin and flavone biosynthesis. Taken together, this study functionally characterizes the role of CmMYB9a in regulating the branched pathways of flavonoids in chrysanthemum flowers.

Blackberry (Rubus spp.) fruit, contains high levels of anthocyanins in the pulp, is a good source of antioxidants. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying anthocyanin accumulation remains elusive. To improve our understanding of this process, we used RNA-seq to evaluate the transcriptional regulation of plant secondary metabolites, especially anthocyanin biosynthesis during fruit ripening. We constructed nine sequencing libraries, obtained 7.7 Gb clean bases and identified 50,563 annotated unigenes. Comparative transcriptome analysis revealed that 11,136, 33,268, and 31,913 genes were differentially expressed at Green vs. Red, Green vs. Black, and Red vs. Black, respectively. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment revealed that 35, 47, and 47 pathways were significantly enriched from these genes, respectively. We identified 58, 18, 24 and 48 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) involved in the anthocyanin biosynthesis, sucrose metabolism, abscisic acid (ABA), and ethylene (ETH) biosynthesis, respectively. Moreover, 66 DEGs of MYB were also identified in blackberry fruit. 24 DEGs from anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway and two DEGs of MYB were positively correlated with anthocyanin accumulation. Six DEGs of sucrose, six DEGs of ABA and seven DEGs of ETH were changed concomitantly with sucrose, ABA and ETH production. This study will provide an important information for understanding the molecular mechanism of anthocyanin accumulation during fruit ripening and a reference for related studies.

BACKGROUND Solanum tuberosum tubers have higher content of phenolic compounds such as hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives (HCAD) and anthocyanins in coloured genotypes. The use of fungicides for crops is common, but there are few studies regarding the interaction of fungicides and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). Here, the AMF-plant interactions and the metabolic responses of three potato genotypes with different tuber colorations (VR808, CB2011-509 and CB2011-104) inoculated with Claroideoglomus claroideum (CC), Claroideoglomus lamellosum (HMC26) or Funneliformis mosseae (HMC7) were studied together with the use of the fungicides MONCUT (M) and ReflectXtra (R). Mycorrhizal traits, phenolic compound profiles and antioxidant activity (AA) were evaluated. RESULTS Despite only two HCADs being identified, with 5-caffeolquinic acid the most abundant, four anthocyanins were detected only in purple potato genotypes. The anthocyanin and HCAD profiles, as well as AA, showed that the CB2011-104 genotype had better characteristics than the other genotypes, while VR808 and CB509 showed similar responses. The responses were dependent on the specific combinations of genotype, fungicide and the AMF strain, and generally showed better responses when colonized by AMFs. CONCLUSION The three potato genotypes had differential responses depending on the inoculated AMFs and the fungicide applied before sowing, where the optimal combinations for antioxidant response, mycorrhization degree and performance were HMC26/R for VR808, HMC7/M for CB2011-509 and HMC26/M for CB2011-104. Our results suggest the existence of functional compatibility that can be registered as beneficial effects even at the genotypic level of the host regarding a specific AMF strain. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

The R2R3 type MYB transcription factors participate in controlling flavonoid production in plants, including anthocyanin and proanthocyanin. Black rice with high anthocyanin content is an important candidate for understanding R2R3-MYB-based regulation of the anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway (ABP). This study was undertaken to draw the functional relationship of an R2R3-MYB protein with anthocyanin biosynthesis and oxidative stress tolerance in plants. The expression levels of the late ABP genes in the panicle stage of black rice were in good agreement with the accumulation of anthocyanin, especially cyanidin 3-glucoside. Among all MYB genes present in rice, an R2R3 type (C1) regulates anthocyanin biosynthesis and was studied further. The positive correlation between the expression of ABP genes and OsC1 along with the nuclear localization of OsC1 are in line with its possible involvement as a transcriptional regulator of ABP genes. Interestingly, OsC1 overexpressed in white rice plants triggered anthocyanin production through augmentation of the transcript level of late ABP genes. Moreover, OsC1-transformed plants exhibited a lower amount of reactive oxygen species upon exposure to oxidative stress. The increased anthocyanin content in white rice seedlings resulted in higher photosynthetic efficiency, less membrane damage and consequently lower oxidative stress. The OsC1 transcriptional regulator helps to ameliorate oxidative stresses in plants owing to its anthocyanin modulating ability.

In recent years less known fruits such as rose hips increased popularity among consumers due to its higher human health compounds and unique aroma properties. In literature mostly results about rose hips obtained from well-known Rosa species, Rosa canina and Rosa dumalis and report about Rosa villosa is very limited. Thus, this study is aimed to assess some important morphological and biochemical characteristics of thirteen Rosa villosa L. genotypes collected from Gumushane province, located in Northeastern Anatolia region of Turkey and compared with R. canina, R. dumalis and R. pimpinellifolia. Results showed that there were statistically important differences among R. villosa genotypes and also differences between R. villosa and the other Rosa species on most of the morphological and biochemical characteristics. Fruit weight insignificantly differed among genotypes but significantly differed among species. There were statistically significant differences in harvest dates, fruit flesh ratio, total phenolic, total anthocyanin, ascorbic acid and organic acids, specific sugars and antioxidant activity between R. villosa genotypes and also Rosa species. Fruit weight was found between 1.04–1.19 g and harvest dates ranged from 24 August and 18 September among R. villosa genotypes. Fruit flesh ratio varied from 75.15 to 84.22%. Vitamin C, total phenolic and total anthocyanin content of the R. villosa genotypes ranged from 288–391 mg per 100 g fresh weight, 682–827 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE) per 100 g fresh weight and 2.12–2.84 mg cyanidin-3-glucoside equivalent per 100 g fresh fruit, respectively. Antioxidant activity was between 34.11–40.07 mmol Trolox equivalents (TE) per g fresh weight.

Light serves as one of the major environmental signals that stimulates anthocyanin biosynthesis in higher plants. In this study, we demonstrate that AtGLK2, an Arabidopsis nuclear GARP transcription factor, plays a positive role in the regulation of anthocyanin biosynthesis. The disruption of AtGLK2 decreased the anthocyanin contents in Arabidopsis seedlings, whereas the overexpression of AtGLK2 resulted in significant enhancements to the accumulation of anthocyanin. Gene expression analysis demonstrated that the expression of late biosynthetic genes in the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway was dramatically reduced in glk2 but elevated in AtGLK2-overexpressing seedlings. It was found that the disruption of AtHY5 decreased the expression of AtGLK2 and that AtGLK2 exhibited light-responsive expression patterns in an AtHY5-dependent manner. Further studies demonstrated that AtHY5-mediated light signaling is required for AtGLK2-regulated anthocyanin accumulation and photosynthetic development. Moreover, AtGLK2 and AtMYBL2 antagonistically regulate the expression of anthocyanin biosynthetic genes and the subsequent anthocyanin accumulation process. Taken together, our data reveal that AtGLK2 positively regulates anthocyanin biosynthesis through AtHY5-mediated light signaling in Arabidopsis.

Due to developing production methods and increasing consumption levels, improvement of fruit quality has become a focus of research. Cytokinins are important hormones that affect fruit quality. In ...

Atherosclerosis is a complex chronic disease characterized by the accumulation of lipids within arterial walls. Delphinidin-3-(p-coumaroylrutinoside)-5-glucoside (nasunin), an anthocyanin, was isolated as purple-colored crystals from eggplant peels. Nasunin protection against induced lipid peroxidation in rat. The aim of study was to determine the effect of eggplant juice to the thickness of aortic wall of white rat with atherogenic diet. This true experimental laboratoric study using control group post test design performed in white rat that placed in pharmacologic laboratory of Brawijaya University. Sampling was carried out by completely random sampling with 25 rats for the total sample. Data were processed and analyzed using SPSS 16. Statistical test using one-way ANOVA and continuing with post hoc Tukey. The result showed there was a significant effect between positive control of diet atherogenic with the dosage I (1,3 gr/3 ml), dosage II (2,6 gr/3 ml), and dosage III (5,2 gr/3 ml) of eggplant juice to aorta wall thickness (p=0,000;p

Background As a category of natural colourants, anthocyanins are abundant in purple-fleshed sweet potato (PFSP). Recently, anthocyanins from PFSP are proven to have multiple bioactivities, but they are liable to undergo discolouration and degradation upon thermal treatment, light exposure, oxidation, etc. Thus, the destabilisation/stabilisation of PFSP anthocyanins has received extensive attention from both academic and industrial views. Scope and approach This work aims to present an updated overview of the occurrence, destabilisation, and stabilisation of anthocyanins in purple-fleshed sweet potato varieties. Key findings and conclusions In total, forty-two anthocyanin monomers are found in PFSP, and they belong to the glycosylated and acylated derivatives of cyanidin, peonidin, pelargonidin, and delphinidin, with the first two predominating. Notably, PFSP anthocyanins were susceptible to destabilisation (degradation/discolouration) when exposed to acid/alkaline, heat, light, oxygen, ascorbic acid, sulfite, metal ions, and enzymes. Herein, the destabilising mechanism, the loss in food processing and the structure-stability relationship of PFSP anthocyanins were deeply discussed. More importantly, it was of high industrial significance that PFSP anthocyanins could be stabilised or protected by intramolecular or intermolecular copigmentation, encapsulation, and certain protective agents. Intramolecular copigmentation often occurred in acylated anthocyanin molecules, while phenolic acids, metal ions, polysaccharides, and proteins could serve as copigments in intermolecular copigmentation. When embedded in polysaccharide-based microcapsules and hydrogels, trapped in β-cyclodextrin cavities, and loaded in surfactant micelles, PFSP anthocyanins demonstrated enhanced stability. In addition, the replacement of ascorbic acid with its derivatives and the applications of antioxidants and enzyme inhibitors favoured the stabilisation of PFSP anthocyanins.

Background and objectives: There is growing interest in introducing safe and bioactive natural red pigments to the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. This study was designed to determine the phytochemical content and potential cytotoxicity of red pigment from Callistemon citrinus (Curtis) Skeels (syn. Melaleuca citrina (Curtis) Dum.Cours.) flowers. Methods: The flowers’ anthocyanin rich pigment was extracted with ethanol (70%, v/v) containing 0.5% formic acid. This extract was fractionated by a three-step process through a Sep-Pak C18 cartridge with water, ethyl acetate, and methanol, respectively. The anthocyanin and coumarin content of the red pigment was identified based on a reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (HPLC/ESI-MS/MS). The MTT assay was used to assess the cytotoxicity of red pigment evaluated on normal human foreskin fibroblasts as well as two malignant cell lines: human breast cancer (MCF-7) and human fibrosarcoma cells (HT1080) at 24, 48 and 72 hours. Results: The anthocyanin compounds in the red pigment fraction were cyanidin (1), cyanidin 3,5-O-diglucoside (2), cyanidin 3-O-glucoside (3), and cyanidin 3-O-glucoside-8-ethyl-catechin (4). Flowers’ pigment also contained two furanocoumarins, including 8-(but-2-en-2-yl)-8,9-dihydro-2H-furo[2,3-h] chromen-2-one (or 15-methyl angenomallin, (5)) and 9-methyl-7H-furo[3,2-g] chromen-7-one (or 8-methylpsoralen, (6)). According to the MTT assays, the highest cytotoxic effect was observed on human foreskin fibroblasts with an IC50 values of

Betalain is one of four major plant pigments and shares some features with anthocyanin; however, no plant has been found to biosynthesize both pigments. Previous studies have reported that anthocyanin biosynthesis in some plants is regulated by post-transcriptional gene-silencing (PTGS), but the importance of PTGS in betalain biosynthesis remains unclear. In this study, we report the occurrence of PTGS in betalain biosynthesis in bougainvillea (Bougainvillea peruviana) ‘Thimma’, which produces bracts of three different color on the same plant, namely pink, white, and pink-white. This resembles the unstable anthocyanin pigmentation phenotype that is associated with PTGS, and hence we anticipated the presence of PTGS in the betalain biosynthetic pathway. To test this, we analysed pigments, gene expression, small RNAs, and transient overexpression. Our results demonstrated that PTGS of BpCYP76AD1, a gene encoding one of the betalain biosynthesis enzymes, is responsible for the loss of betalain biosynthesis in ‘Thimma’. Neither the genetic background nor DNA methylation in the BpCYP76AD1 sequence could explain the induction of PTGS, implying that another locus controls the unstable pigmentation. Our results indicate that naturally occurring PTGS contributes to the diversification of color patterns not only in anthocyanin biosynthesis but also in betalain biosynthesis.

Purple-fleshed sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas（L.）Lam.) is rich in anthocyanins. R2R3-type MYB transcription factors（TFs）with EAR motifs inhibiting anthocyanin biosynthesis have been reported, and there is still a lack of information on how mutations in the EAR motifs of MYBs affect anthocyanin accumulation. In this study, we obtained three IbMYB44 TFs by bioinformatics. Among these TFs, IbMYB44.1, IbMYB44.3 with a complete EAR motif and IbMYB44.2 with a single amino acid mutant in the EAR motif caused an amino acid substitution from leucine to valine. RT-qPCR analysis showed that IbMYB44s was expressed at lower levels in the purple-fleshed sweetpotato than in nonpurple-fleshed sweetpotato (P 0.01). Transient expression assays showed that the inhibitory effect of IbMYB44.1/3 was stronger than IbMYB44.2 in tobacco leaves and red-skinned pears. RT-qPCR analysis further proved that IbMYB44.1/3 significantly inhibited the expression of anthocyanin biosynthesis-related genes compared with IbMYB44.2 in tobacco leaves and red-skinned pears. A dual luciferase reporter assay showed that IbMYB44s cannot directly activate the IbANS promoter, and the result was also verified by yeast one-hybrid (Y1H) experiments. Moreover, we identified the interaction of IbMYB340 with IbMYB44.1, IbMYB44.2 and IbMYB44.3 via yeast two-hybrid (Y2H) assays. Thus, IbMYB44.1/3 could interact with IbMYB340 to negatively regulate anthocyanin biosynthesis. This study enriched the regulatory network of anthocyanins and also provided a theoretical basis for a single amino acid mutant from leucine to valine in the EAR motif of IbMYB44.2 affecting anthocyanin biosynthesis in the purple-fleshed sweetpotato.

Anthocyanin pigmentation is a significant horticultural feature in plants and can be a crucial mediator of plant–insect interactions. In carnivorous plants, the modified leaves that capture prey can be visually striking and are traditionally considered prey attractants. Nevertheless, the question of whether bold color and venation patterns function as lures for insect prey remains ambiguous, and appears to vary across taxa. Furthermore, vegetative pigments can have alternate functions as protectants against thermal and oxidative damage. Our dual-year study compares the wild-type pitcher phenotype with a true-breeding anthocyanin-free mutant of the white-topped pitcher plant (Sarracenia leucophylla Raf.). We bred full-sibling crosses of S. leucophylla carrying either the wild-type anthocyanin gene or the anthocyanin-free variant. In both experimental years, growth points were established in outdoor plots and pitchers were allowed to capture prey before harvest at the end of each growing season. Dry weight of prey biomass was measured from pitchers of both pigment morphs, along with nectary counts, pitcher size, and internal temperature. The presence of anthocyanins in trapping leaves did not affect the biomass of insects captured. Nor did wild-type or anthocyanin-free pitcher morphs differ in size, temperature, or nectary counts. Instead, pitcher height, and, nominally, mouth diameter were better predictors of prey biomass. Despite striking visual differences in pitcher color, wild-type and anthocyanin-free plants did not catch significantly different quantities of prey. Our study provides empirical data that anthocyanin pigmentation in S. leucophylla does not affect the capture of prey biomass, and supports a growing body of literature showing that pigmentation traits serve in multiple contexts.

Helminthiasis is a worm infestation caused by several different species of intestinal parasitic worms. This group of worms belongs to the category of Soil Transmitted Helminth (STH) because the process of developing eggs or larvae of these species requires soil to develop into an infective form. The simplest method of examining intestinal nematode worm eggs is the Native Method using 2% Eosin reagent in observing various elements of the examination on the preparations/preparations. Eosin itself has properties that are not easily biodegradable, and generates hazardous waste (toxic) and flammable so that alternative coloring is needed that is more environmentally friendly. Purple sweet potato has a high content of anthocyanin pigments and is more stable than the pigments of strawberries, red cabbage, perilla and other plants. Thus, purple sweet potato has been considered a good source of anthocyanins. This study aims to determine the use of anthocyanin extract from purple sweet potato as a natural dye substitute for eosin dye in the identification of STH in the native method. Parameters observed in the preparations were the quality of visual field contrast, color absorption on the surface of the parasite, and the level of clarity of the appearance of the parasite. The results showed that the use of anthocyanin extract from purple sweet potato at a concentration of 80% could color the eggs of STH worms which were found in positive samples of Ascaris lumbricoides seen in fertile (fertilized eggs) and infertile (unfertilized eggs). Therefore, the anthocyanin extract obtained from purple sweet potato has potential as an alternative dye to replace eosin.

This study focuses on the identification of major anthocyanin following its temporal accumulation in colour changing flowers of Combretum indicum (L.) DeFilipps (syn. Quisqualis indica L.). Separation and identification of pigments governing changes in floral colour were performed using HPLC-DAD. Comparison of chromatographic runs with retention time and UV-Vis spectra of authentic standards determined cyanidin 3-O-glucoside as the major anthocyanin accumulating in the petals. Acid hydrolysis of anthocyanin extracts further confirmed cyanidin as the major anthocyanidin in floral tissue. Light microscopic studies revealed gradual accumulation of pigments in the epidermal and hypodermal cell layers of petals. Antioxidant potentials of floral extracts in ethanol, methanol, water and ethyl acetate were determined by DPPH assay where methanolic extracts showed highest free-radical scavenging capacity, and petals of red stage showed maximum activity. Antioxidative potentials measured in terms of FRAP and ABTS also indicated similar results showing highest activity in the red stage.

Pomegranate juice (PJ) (at concentrations of 13% and 17%) was added to yogurt and its physicochemical and microbial properties were investigated. PJ improved several features of yogurt, bringing an increase in total phenolic contents by 4.3–6.1 and 5.3–7.3 fold in response to 13% and 17% PJ, respectively. Also, there were increases in the total anthocyanin contents of yogurt by 2650–2870 and 3470–3820 fold in response to the said juice concentrations. These increases were observed in both set and stirred yogurts, whereas IC50 values of the yogurts decreased by 2.2–2.6 and 3.0–3.3 fold, respectively, compared to the control samples. Total acidity, syneresis, and redness value of the yogurts increased, parallel to the increase in the PJ concentration being added. Also, Streptococcus thermophilus count decreased significantly, whereas no significant effect was observed on the population count of Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus. Among PJ yogurt samples, the panelists selected the 13% PJ stirred yogurt as the best sample. PJ was observed to contain valuable bioactive compounds with functional and medicinal effects that culminate in health benefits., The addition of bioactive compounds, such as polyphenols, flavonoids, and anthocyanins, to the yogurt can make it healthier. Pomegranate juice is a valuable source of natural antioxidants, especially for its phenolic compounds, and can be added to the yogurt for improving its functional properties and to fulfill consumer expectations. The objective of this study was to optimize pomegranate juice concentrations (13% and 17%) by adding them to the yogurt, followed by an analysis of its physicochemical features and microbial properties.

Betalains, comprising violet betacyanins and yellow betaxanthins, are pigments found in plants belonging to the order Caryophyllales. In this study, we induced the accumulation of betalains in ornamental lisianthus (Eustoma grandiflorum) by genetic engineering. Three betalain biosynthetic genes encoding CYP76AD1, dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) 4,5-dioxygenase (DOD), and cyclo-DOPA 5-O-glucosyltransferase (5GT) were expressed under the control of the cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) 35S promoter in lisianthus, in which anthocyanin pigments are responsible for the pink flower color. During the selection process on hygromycin-containing media, some shoots with red leaves were obtained. However, most red-colored shoots were suppressed root induction and incapable of further growth. Only clone #1 successfully acclimatized and bloomed, producing pinkish-red flowers, with a slightly greater intensity of red color than that in wild-type flowers. T1 plants derived from clone #1 segregated into five typical flower color phenotypes: wine red, bright pink, pale pink, pale yellow, and salmon pink. Among these, line #1-1 showed high expression levels of all three transgenes and exhibited a novel wine-red flower color. In the flower petals of line #1-1, abundant betacyanins and low-level betaxanthins were coexistent with anthocyanins. In other lines, differences in the relative accumulation of betalain and anthocyanin pigments resulted in flower color variations, as described above. Thus, this study is the first to successfully produce novel flower color varieties in ornamental plants by controlling betalain accumulation through genetic engineering.

Anthocyanins are common secondary metabolites in plants that impart red coloration to fruits and flowers. The important WRKY transcription factor family plays multifaceted roles in plant growth and development. In this study, we found a WRKY family gene, Pyrus bretschneideri WRKY75, that may be involved in anthocyanin synthesis in pear. Unlike Arabidopsis thaliana WRKY75, PbWRKY75 may be a positive regulator of anthocyanin synthesis. A transient expression assay indicated that PbWRKY75 promoted pear anthocyanin synthesis. The structural genes (PbANS, PbDFR, and PbUFGT) and positive regulators (PbMYB10 and PbMYB10b) of anthocyanin synthesis were significantly upregulated in the fruitlet skins of PbWRKY75-overexpressing "Zaosu" pears. Subsequently, yeast one-hybrid and dual-luciferase assays indicated that PbWRKY75 promoted PbDFR, PbUFGT, and PbMYB10b expression by activating their promoters. These results revealed that PbWRKY75 may promote the expression of both PbMYB10b and anthocyanin late biosynthetic genes (PbDFR and PbUFGT) by activating their promoters, thereby inducing anthocyanin synthesis in pear. This study enhanced our understanding of the mechanism of pear anthocyanin synthesis, which will be beneficial in the improvement of pear peel color.

Purple wheat is thought to have beneficial effects on humans owing to its high anthocyanin content. However, a systematic understanding of the anthocyanin biosynthesis process in developing wheat grain is lacking. Here, the dynamic changes in anthocyanin components and transcripts in the grain of purple wheat ZNM168 at five developmental stages (10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 DAF) were characterized. Compared with other anthocyanins, four components, cyanidin 3-O-rutinoside, cyanidin 3-O-glucoside, cyanidin 3,5-O-diglucoside, and malvidin 3-O-glucoside, were significantly accumulated with grain development. In particular, the considerable accumulation of cyanidin 3-O-rutinoside indicated that it was the pivotal pigment for the purple grain. Transcriptome analysis revealed that the nine differentially expressed genes related to anthocyanin biosynthesis belonged to the BZ1 group, the homologous enzyme encoded by the maize Bronze-1 locus, which may primarily serve to glucosylate anthocyanidins. By constructing a gene coexpression network based on weighted gene coexpression network analysis, the TaBZ1 UniGene (TraesCS1D02G019200) was predicted as a core gene in anthocyanin biosynthesis. In addition, correlation analysis between the metabolites and transcripts suggested that TraesCS2A01G527700 (TaCHS) and TraesCS6B01G006200 (TaANS) were considered critical structural genes in the anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway. This study provides insights to exploit genes pinpointed as genetic engineering targets, thereby breeding anthocyanin-enriched wheat.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to review the nutritional composition, phytochemicals and bioactive compounds of black rice such as flavonoids, phenolic compounds and their health benefits. Black rice has also been used in medicine and for curing diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular diseases and cancer. Green technologies such as microwave-assisted extraction, supercritical fluid extraction and pulse electric field assisted extraction are very useful for the extraction of bioactive compounds as these reduce the use of energy and are environmental friendly. Black rice in different forms can be incorporated in various food products such as bakery, dairy and meat products. Design/methodology/approach Information and data were collected from different sources such as Google Scholar, Research Gate, online journals available at Banaras Hindu University library, Web of Science and Scopus. A database of more than 80 scientific sources from different sources was made as per the headings and subheadings of the paper. Findings Black rice is a type of rice species (Oryza sativa L.) and very good source of various nutrients and one of the nutritious varieties of rice. It is a good reservoir of essential amino acids such as lysine, tryptophan, minerals including iron, calcium, phosphorus, zinc and selenium; vitamins such as vitamin B1, vitamin B2 and folic acid. Various recent methods of extraction of bioactive compounds from black rice are suggested. Originality/value Researchers and scientists have considered black rice as a “Super Food” because of its nutritional profile. Black rice has antioxidant activity, anti-inflammatory activity, anticancer activity, antihyperlipidemia and antihyperglycemia and anti-allergic activity. There is a need to create awareness among the consumers about its nutritional profile and therapeutic properties.

This study combined in vitro digestion and INT-407 cells to evaluate the bioaccessibility of anthocyanins in the small intestinal epithelial cells. Black soybean, grape, and purple sweet potato were chosen as they have a different anthocyanin composition. After the aqueous extract was digested under in vitro gastric and intestinal conditions, the digested mixture was incubated in the media of INT-407 for 2 h at 37 °C. Low proportion (