Search

Objective: Aim: To explore the capabilities of the modern 3D modeling method for various elements of gunshot wounds caused by 9 mm caliber bullets, intending to integrate these findings into the theory and practice of forensic medicine., Patients and Methods: Materials and Methods: The research began with a series of experimental shots, during which the morphological features were examined through their 3D spatial reconstruction. The entire series of experimental shots was conducted using an automatic pistol IZH 70-01 equipped with 9.0 mm caliber bullets. The ballistic clay Roma Plastilina No.1, manufactured in the USA, was utilized as a material for conducting standard ballistic tests according to the standards of the NIJ (National Institute of Justice) and HOSDB (Home Office Scientific Development Branch)., Results: Results: The research was continued during the performance of forensic examinations involving actual cases of gunshot injuries. The dimensions of individual elements of the wound channel were measured in both experimental and expert cases using conventional measuring tools, as well as after their 3D modeling, utilizing graphic editors such as "Agisoft Photoscan" and "3ds max"., Conclusion: Conclusions: In the course of creating and studying experimental and expert 3D models, the dimensions of individual morphological elements of the wound channel were recorded with an accuracy that exceeded the results obtained through measurements using traditional measurement methods by ten times.

Skeletal evidence usually constitutes the only source of information to interpret lesion patterns that help to clarify the circumstances surrounding death. The examination and interpretation of bone trauma are essential to the application and utility of anthropology as a forensic science. When discussing the effect of gunshot wounds in bone, it becomes imperative to differentiate between short and long-distance injuries based on clear, distinct, and observable signs. To contribute to the debate, our focus is directed toward the external analysis of the so-called circumferential delamination defect (CDD) as an observable proxy for close-range shooting (≤30 cm) and contact gunshot wounds in the skull. In the context of known extrajudicial killings, in which the perpetrators used short 9 × 19 FMJ ammunition in a close-range shooting, instances of CDD have been documented. Empirical evidence reinforcing the causal relationship between CDD and close-range shootings is presented. Elements' characteristics of firearm residues were also found in remains buried for up to 30 years. Primarily, this work shows that the concentrations of gunshot residues (Pb, Ba, and Sb) resemble those observed in fresh corpses with the same gunshot wound (GSW). Moreover, the correlation observed between CDD and gunshot residues, where the likelihood of CDD increases the closer to the head and the more perpendicular the shot angle is, reinforces CDD as a pivotal discriminatory factor in the skeletal evidence of short-range or contact shot. This research contributes to the field of forensic anthropology by providing fundamental insights into the etiology of CDD and its practical application., (© 2024 American Academy of Forensic Sciences.)

Contact shots to the head often leave behind biological traces inside firearm barrels, a phenomenon of great forensic interest. Until now, the visualization and preservation of these traces presented a significant challenge, lacking a reliable method. This study addresses this gap by searching for a suitable method to extract the traces within a casting. Using alginate or gelatine as suitable materials, the results were hampered by serious adhesion issues and their extraction out of the firearm barrel was impeded. Finally, the combination of 11% gelatine with 1% alginate, introduced into the barrel around a 'central spine', succeeded to consistently produce replicable castings. Experimental contact shots displayed a distinct staining gradient from the muzzle to the rear of the barrel, as revealed through endoscopy and proved in the macroscopic casting. The technique proved effective for various common handgun barrels and successfully preserved blood and gunshot residue (GSR) patterns within the barrel. This method offers the dual benefits of visually mapping staining patterns and securing localized samples for targeted molecular genetic analysis in forensic investigations., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Computed tomography (CT) may have a crucial role in the forensic documentation and analysis of firearm injuries. The aim of this forensic ballistics case study was to explore whether two types of expanding bullets and a full metal-jacketed bullet could be differentiated by inspecting bullet fragments and fragmentation pattern in CT. Three types of .30 caliber bullets (full metal-jacketed Norma Jaktmatch, expanding full-copper Norma Ecostrike, and expanding soft-point Norma Oryx) were test fired from a distance of 5 m to blocks of 10% ballistic gelatine. CT scans of the blocks were obtained with clinical equipment and metal artifact reduction. Radiopaque fragments were identified and fragmentation parameters were obtained from the scans (total number of fragments, maximum diameter of the largest fragment, distance between entrance and the closest fragment, length of the fragment cloud, and maximum diameters of the fragment cloud). The fragmentation patterns were additionally visualized by means of 3D reconstruction. In CT, the bullet types differed in several fragmentation parameters. While the expanding full-copper bullet Ecostrike left behind only a single fragment near the end of the bullet channel, the soft-point Oryx had hundreds of fragments deposited throughout the channel. For both expanding bullets Ecostrike and Oryx, the fragments were clearly smaller than those left behind by the full metal-jacketed Jaktmatch. This was surprising as the full metal-jacketed bullet was expected to remain intact. The fragment cloud of Jaktmatch had similar mediolateral and superoinferior diameters to that of Oryx; however, fragments were deposited in the second half of the gelatine block, and not throughout the block. This case study provides a basis and potential methodology for further experiments. The findings are expected to benefit forensic practitioners with limited background information on gunshot injury cases, for example, those that involve several potential firearms or atypical gunshot wounds. The findings may prove beneficial for both human and wildlife forensics., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

The purpose of the scientific work is to outline the main stages of the development of forensic examination of gunshot injuries in Russia. The analysis of the special literature from 1865 to the present time has demonstrated that the issue of forensic examination of gunshot injuries has been analyzed quite deeply by Russian forensic specialists. Meanwhile, expert practice sets forth tasks that are associated with the emergence of new firearm samples and new methods of laboratory and instrumental diagnosis.

This study revisited the forensic literature to compile case-specific characteristics of the tandem-bullet phenomenon (TBP). A systematic review was performed following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Protocols (PRISMA-P) and The Joanna Briggs Institute's manual. The protocol was registered in Open Science Framework. Ten primary databases and two sources of grey literature were searched, with descriptive studies on TBP, with information about the victim, weapon, ammunition and injuries, being included. From an initial sample of 2360 studies, 13 were eligible. The studies reported 11 male and 2 female victims, with ages between 14 and 63 years (mean = 39.45 ± 14.51 years); seven were victims of suicide (or suicide attempt); most of the victims (69.23%) were shot in the head and neck; and most (84.61%) had an entry and exit wound ratio of 1:0, respectively. The use of image exams to assess injuries and bullets was reported in 12 cases (92.30%). The most frequent reasons for the TBP were the mismatch between weapon and ammunition and the use of defective cartridges (76.92%). Forensic professionals must be aware of the case-specific characteristics of the TBP to overcome confounding factors in wound ballistics and medicolegal examinations., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest This study was financed in part by the Coordination of Superior Level Staff Improvement (CAPES), finance code 001, and the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq). Luiz Renato Paranhos was the financed author. No other financial association is related to the present study., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Ltd and Faculty of Forensic and Legal Medicine. All rights reserved.)

Biological traces inside firearm barrels were observed as a result of contact shots to the head. The present study was conducted to investigate the influence of the muzzle to target distance on staining inside the anterior and posterior part of firearm barrels. Ninety-nine shots were fired to so-called reference cubes (10% gelatine, 12 cm edge length, embedded paint-blood-pad) using three current handguns. Shot range was varied from contact to 50 cm distance. High-speed cameras recorded external backspatter. Endoscopic examination assessed visible staining along the barrel. Each two swabbings were gathered from the anterior and the posterior part of the barrel. The first swabs were submitted to quantitative PCR, the second ones to DNA-RNA-co-extraction. Thorough mechanical and chemical cleaning was performed to avoid any contamination which was controlled by negative zero swabs after each cleaning. In single shots up to 50 cm distance, minimal, but DNA-positive sporadic traces were detected inside the barrel in vicinity of the muzzle. Visible complex staining varying in extent was observed in the anterior barrel part for 10 cm or less distance in dependence of the calibre. The posterior part showed detectable traces only after close range shots (< 5 cm). Generally staining inside the barrel decreased from the muzzle to the rear end, which correlated with the yield of DNA. Some contact shots did not cause any staining in the posterior part of the barrel despite massive external backspatter. Blood-specific miRNA was primarily found where DNA was detected. This experience encourages to take a second swab for RNA analysis. The amount of nucleic acids in the barrel at varying muzzle to target distances is subject to large variations between individual shots and therefore appears not suitable for a reliable determination of the shot distance in a particular case on its own. Instead, shot range estimation should also take into account morphology and distribution of traces inside the barrel., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Abstract: As the fifth leading cause of death in individuals aged 1 to 64 years in the United States, forensic pathologists frequently encounter firearm-related deaths and are trained to approach these cases by utilizing information from the investigation, radiographs, and autopsy findings to discern the logical sequence of events that lead to death. We also emphasize the importance and utility of various factors such as bullet wound characteristics, type of ammunition used, and type of tissues involved in a forensic pathologist's determination of events and in medicolegal investigations. However, the unusual presentations of firearm-related deaths can cause confusion and even frustration when there are contradicting circumstances or findings at work. We present the case of a 61-year-old woman with an atypical pattern of 2 distinct irregular entrance gunshot wounds determined to be caused by a single projectile., Competing Interests: The authors report no conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2023 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

This research implements a fractographic approach to investigate the relationships between kinetic energy, firearm-to-target distance, and various aspects of fracture behavior in gunshot trauma. Gunshot experiments were performed on pig scapulae (n = 30) using three firearms generating different muzzle (initial) kinetic energies, including a 0.32 pistol (103 J), 0.40 pistol (492 J), and 0.308 rifle (2275 J). Specimens were shot from two distances: 10 cm (n = 15) and 110 cm (n = 15). Features evaluated in fractographic analysis such as cone cracks, radiating cracks, crack branching points, and circumferential cracks could be easily identified and measured in flat bones and allowed for statistical comparison of crack propagation behavior under different impact conditions. Higher-energy bullets produced more radiating cracks, more crack branching points, and longer fracture lengths than lower-energy bullets. Distance had no significant effect on fracture morphology at the distances tested. That quantitative measures of crack propagation varied with energy affirms that kinetic energy transfer is important in determining the nature and extent of fracture in gunshot wounds and suggests it may be possible to infer relatively high- versus relatively low-energy transfer using these features. Ranges obtained with the three firearms exhibited considerable overlap, however, indicating that other variables such as bullet caliber, mass, and construction influence the efficiency of energy transfer from bullet to bone. Therefore, fracture morphology cannot be used to identify a specific firearm or to directly reconstruct the muzzle (initial) kinetic energy in forensic cases., (© 2024 American Academy of Forensic Sciences.)

Aims: We observed modern spring-loaded air rifles reaching velocities similar to small-bore rifles, raising concerns about their potential lethality. After encountering two life-threatening thoracic injuries in our practice, we conducted a study to assess the injuries that a commonly available air rifle could cause in a porcine cadaver model., Methods: We conducted shooting experiments from 5 and 10 metres away using a .22 calibre spring-loaded airgun, firing five shots into the anterolateral chest on the left side at both distances. Additionally, we repeated the experiment with ten shots into 10% ballistics gel behind an explanted chest wall to evaluate chest wall penetration reliability., Results: Out of the ten combined shots, six resulted in lethal or potentially lethal injuries, including multiple cardiac injuries. Moreover, we observed chest wall penetration in 9 out of 10 shots, with an average penetration depth of 106mm. Non-life-threatening injuries appeared to be influenced by shot location rather than an inability to penetrate the chest wall., Conclusion: Our study raises significant concerns about the potential lethality of unrestricted air rifles in New Zealand. With muzzle velocities comparable to small-bore rifles, these firearms should be reconsidered in terms of regulation and possibly restricted to gun license holders., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest., (© PMA.)

Projectile injuries to the face deserve particular attention to evaluate for involvement of critical structures and functional elements and treat the devastating effects on facial aesthetics. Ballistic trauma to the maxillofacial region often has significant soft tissue and bony defects, creating a greater challenge to the reconstructive surgeon. The main goals of treatment of projectile injuries to the face are decreasing the amount of contaminants and nonviable tissue at the site, ensuring functionality, and restoring aesthetic appearance. There exists a lack of robust research on the subject. Soft tissue injuries from high-velocity projectiles have changed the perspective on treating acute injuries to the face and neck. Injuries encountered during both Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom give the author pause to reflect upon a different wounding pattern than that encountered in stateside trauma centers. Given the dissemination of high-velocity weaponry by enemy combatants such as the improvised explosive device, mortar round, and high-velocity rifles, a higher incidence of facial wounds has been reported. The mechanism of injury and a stepwise approach for surgical repair are discussed incorporating advanced trauma life support principles and a reconstructive ladder of repair., Competing Interests: None declared., (Thieme. All rights reserved.)

The objective of this work was to determine the reasons and to find the ways to prevent common mistakes in using conceptual and terminology framework in forensic medical ballistics. Basic research and dissertation papers, practice guidelines and textbooks, educational learning materials, as well as conceptual and terminology frameworks of the regulatory legal acts of the Russian Federation had been analyzed. The study outcomes make it possible for a forensic medical expert to use basic definitions and terms of forensic medical ballistics in his/her practice methodologically correctly and in a well-argued manner, to reduce dramatically or completely exclude a possibility of expert's mistakes, to formulate reliable and sound conclusions upon the fact and conditions of a firearm use and upon a concrete mechanism of a gunshot wound formation in general.

Forensic recovery from fired ammunition casings remains one of the most challenging tasks during high-profile investigations. Often, the decision must be made between screening for DNA or fingerprints, and, in doing so, the impact these processes will have on the examination of ballistic markings imparted on the ammunition from the firearm itself. Traditionally, fingermark enhancement processes have yielded low success rates in their efforts to identify suspects by enhancing friction ridge detail left on the cartridge casings. Moreover, the enhancement methods utilised may often induce detrimental physical changes to the casing(s), rendering them unsuitable for subsequent ballistics (marking) examination. Recently, new technology has been shown to increase the success rate of fingermark recovery from fired ammunition, and the growing adoption of such innovation means that new challenges are encountered to maximise evidence recovery and streamline forensic workflows. One such example arises from the potential obscuration of the ammunition headstamp area during such treatments. Accordingly, this study outlines the preliminary investigations and developments of a polymer mask substrate that serves to protect the headstamp of fired ammunition casings during relevant fingermark enhancement processes. The technique also has the capacity to be used as a surface protection device to eliminate unwanted chemical deposition across other areas of interest and evidence types., (Copyright © 2022 The Chartered Society of Forensic Sciences. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The wound ballistics literature contains several misconceptions about the physical effects of penetrating projectiles in tissue and tissue simulants. These can adversely affect the proper management of gunshot injuries, particularly in view of the ongoing threat of terrorist and criminal acts using assault rifles against civilians. The understanding of the wounding effects by military rifle bullets can be founded on the concept of energy transfer to the wound as applied to high-energy missile trauma. A substantial component of high-energy transfer in assault rifle injuries is manifested by the dynamic phenomenon of temporary cavitation, which is extensively reviewed with respect to its impact on the wound production and the associated controversy surrounding its consequences in soft tissue wounds. Part of this controversy emanates from misinterpretation of experimental data regarding the magnitude of the temporary cavity induced by high-velocity projectiles and the different conceptions of the tissue response to cavitation. The interaction between the projectile and tissue can lead to tumbling and possibly to deformation and fragmentation of the bullet, all of which strongly influence the energy transfer characteristics affecting both the temporary cavitation and the size of the permanent wound channel. Awareness of these effects can enhance perception of clinical and radiological findings suggestive of the wounding mechanism by various projectiles. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Review/therapeutic, level V.

Identifying failure mechanisms in skeletal tissue allows a deeper understanding of the effects of specific projectile impacts on bone. While ballistic trauma in flat bones is largely researched, knowledge of how long bones react to gunshot impacts is limited in the literature. The impacts of deforming ammunition appear to produce higher levels of fragmentation; however, these have not been studied in depth. This study compares the damage to femora bone by HP 0.357 and 9 mm projectiles constructed with both full and semi-metal jackets. Impact experiments were undertaken on a single-stage light gas gun involving the use of a high-speed video camera and full reconstruction of the bones to ascertain fracture patterns occurring in the femora. Higher degrees of fragmentation are likened to the presence of semi-jacketed HP projectiles than jacketed HP projectiles. The observations of external facing beveled edges are believed to be associated with the increased separation of the jacket and lead core of projectiles. Additionally, experimentation has shown that the amount of kinetic energy lost postimpact is likely related to the presence or the absence of a metal jacket on an HP projectile. The observed data, therefore, suggest that the composition, rather than the configuration, of a projectile affects the type and extent of the damage., (© 2023 The Authors. Journal of Forensic Sciences published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American Academy of Forensic Sciences.)

The aim of this study is to analyze the injury potential of the free-falling bullet in the cranium, which is known as a tired bullet in the public, with the finite element method (FEM) In the study, as penetrant 9 × 19 mm FMJ bullets with vertical falling angle, adult human skull and brain tissue were discussed. The results of the analysis with the Finite element method, which is similar to the cases reported before, revealed that free-falling bullets as a result of shooting into the air can cause fatal injuries., Competing Interests: Conflict of interest None Declared., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Ltd and Faculty of Forensic and Legal Medicine. All rights reserved.)

In the frame of an experimental setting, the formation of round-shaped compounded glass fragments on the exit site after gunshots through a windshield was examined. For that purpose, a 9 × 19 mm pistol (HK P30) and two different cartridges containing (a) a full metal jacketed round-nosed projectile and (b) a deformation projectile were used. On the basis of 52 gunshots, the morphology, impact angles and terminal ballistics of occurring compounded glass fragments were examined. The results showed that the compounded glass fragments' morphology allowed for the differentiation of two used projectiles. Fragments were able to cause round-shaped defects in a single cotton layer (T-shirt) with subsequent penetration of up to 2.4 cm into ballistic gelatin (10%, 4 °C). As a function of the projectile type, the compounded glass fragments showed different reproducible impact angles that differed notably from the known conical pattern of expelled glass fragments after bullet penetration. These findings might help to explain the atypical morphology of gunshot wounds with laminated glass as an intermediate target and prevent possible misinterpretations when reconstructing the sequence of events., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

In contrast to gunshot wounds in skin and bone, the medico-legal literature pays little attention to the appearance of bullet penetration sites in abdominal organs. It was only in 1983 that Metter and Schulz published an article entitled "Morphological features of gunshot wounds in the liver and spleen." According to their observations, the organs in question showed stellate tears at the bullet penetration sites resembling skin wounds from contact shots to body regions having a bony support. The study presented simulated the real conditions by means of test shots to composite models consisting of porcine organs embedded in ballistic gelatin. The ammunition used was pistol cartridges 9 mm Luger with full metal jacket round nose bullets. The shots were video-documented with a high-speed camera in order to record the bullet's travel through the target. In addition, the composite models fired at underwent CT examinations followed by a macroscopic assessment of the organs. The study confirmed the findings of Metter and Schulz with regard to the star-like appearance of gunshot wounds in the liver and spleen. Likewise, the kidney showed radiating tears originating from the bullet path, whereas the wound track in pulmonary tissue was tube-shaped and lacked additional cracks. The varying wound patterns in parenchymatous organs can reasonably be explained as a consequence of the respective viscoelastic tissue properties., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Rust stains are marks left by firearms in case of prolonged contact with the cutaneous surfaces. These peculiar signs along with other well-documented findings can guide the medical examiner in the determination of the manner of death, especially in case of firearm suicide. This paper presents the case of a 33-year-old male soldier who committed suicide by using a short-barreled weapon, whose trigger remained in contact with the first finger of his right hand, leading to the formation of a rust stain that perfectly reproduced its design. The forensic examination of the scene, the external cadaveric inspection, and the autopsy are described. For the evaluation of the histological findings typical of rust spots, the authors decided to replicate the phenomenon in an experimental setting using porcine skin. In order to provide an exhaustive overview on the formation and the features of rust stains, a review of the forensic literature concerning this rare mark was performed., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

Gunshot residues (GSRs) play an important role in forensic investigations of gun-related violence. The presence of GSRs has been described to help to identify the bullet entry area, as it was supposed not to be found at exit wounds. This report details the suicidal headshot of an 84-year-old male where unburned tube-like, cuboid and flake-formed powder particles have been found not only at the inside of the muzzle but also circular around the exit wound. With very short-barrelled weapons, it must be expected that part of the propellant charge leaves the barrel unburned behind the bullet. In contrast to that, the barrel length of the used weapon should lead to a complete burn-up of powder particles. The surprisingly large number of unburned powder particles present at the exit wound of the injury gave reason for further investigation to understand the underlying ballistic aspects and outlines the importance of having a close look at incidence scene photos during an investigation., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

Shot range, the muzzle-target distance, is a crucial parameter for forensic reconstruction of deaths by firearms. In a large number of cases, especially suicides, the forensic pathologist is confronted with contact or near-contact shots, where muzzle gases play an additional role. This study was conducted to systematically investigate the influence of muzzle gases on the temporary cavity (TC). A total of 72 shots were fired using full metal-jacketed bullets in four forensically relevant calibres from 10-, 5-, 3-, 2- and 1-cm distance and in close contact. Target model was the so-called reference cube (10% gelatine at 4 °C) with 12-cm edge length. The TC was recorded using high-speed video (HSV). Cross-sectional analysis was performed by cutting the blocks to 1-cm slices, which were evaluated by applying the polygon method. The TC of shots from 10 and 5 cm distance had a tubular form. This aspect changed depending on the cartridge with decreasing distance (≤ 3 cm) into a pear-like form, which was typical for contact shots. The cumulated heights of the TC increased with decreasing distance below 3 cm. Contact shots approximately doubled the extension of the TC compared with exclusive energy transfer. Whereas HSV documented an increasingly asymmetric profile with ballooning at the entry side, cross-sectional analysis of cracks in gelatine resulted in convex graphs with only slight asymmetry for contact shots. Additional damage in gelatine was detected for 3-cm distance or less in calibre .357 Magnum and ≤ 2 cm for .32 auto, .38 special and 9mm Luger. The increasing influence of muzzle gas pressure is detectable with decreasing shot range below 3 cm.

Contact shots to the head often provoke a transfer of biological traces into firearm barrels, which are not visible at endoscopic inspection. STR-PCR can amplify these latent traces and assign them to the victim. Via RNA-DNA-co-extraction also miRNA can be detected, which allow a conclusion to be drawn about the body fluid or tissue. Molecular genetic analysis of experimental stains in firearm barrels requires the guarantee that the barrel is initially free of any nucleic acid. Twelve shots were fired to so-called "reference cubes" (10 % gelatine, 12 cm edge length, embedded paint-blood-pad) using three current handguns: from 20 and 30 cm distance, four at close range (1-2.5 cm) and six contact shots. After endoscopic examination and swabbing of the barrels, a previously described mechanical and chemical cleaning using DNAExitusPlus™ was performed. The inner surface of the barrel was thoroughly wiped off using moistened forensic swabs, which were submitted to RNA-DNA-co-extraction. The combined thorough mechanical cleaning with Ballistol® and the application of DNAExitusPlus™ eliminated any profilable DNA in all samples. However, in 10 of 12 samples RNA concentrations between 0.11 - 0.79 ng/μl were measured. Furthermore, in 9 of 12 samples blood-specific miRNA (miR-451a) was detected. Summarizing, none of the experimentally contaminated barrels was RNA-free despite the performed cleaning procedure. Further investigation showed, that even "professional" cleaning by a gunsmith did not remove RNA., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interests., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The Objective of the Work: Is to study the character of deflection of fragments of a semi-jacketed shell (a semi-jacketed bimetallic bullet with a lead core of a 5.45×39 mm cartridge for the Saiga carbine) and the ejection of fragments of the triplex glass shot with it. The experiments results showed that when a triplex glass pierced at an angle of 60° with respect to the sightline, there is a deflection towards the normal line of the flight direction of the shell and obstacle fragments. The shell speed far exceeds the ballistic limit, but the fragments speed is much lower and the trajectory is formed by alternating waves of compression and decompression.

Firearm injuries are a preventable epidemic in the USA. Extremities are commonly affected in gunshot injuries. Such injuries may be complex with concomitant osseous, soft tissue, and neurovascular components. The maximum wounding potential of a projectile is determined by its kinetic energy and the proportion of the kinetic energy that is transmitted to the target. Accurate assessment of ballistic injuries is dependent on utilizing the principles of wound ballistics, accurate bullet count, and ballistic trajectory analysis. The goals of this article are to review wound ballistics and the imaging evaluation of extremity civilian firearm injuries in the adult population, with emphasis on ballistic trajectory analysis, specific ballistic fracture patterns, and diffuse, secondary soft tissue ballistic injuries., (© 2021. ISS.)

One type of clothing system used in the English Civil War, more common amongst cavalrymen than infantrymen, was the linen shirt, wool waistcoat and buff-coat. Ballistic testing was conducted to estimate the velocity at which 50% of 12-bore lead spherical projectiles (V 50 ) would be expected to perforate this clothing system when mounted on gelatine (a tissue simulant used in wound ballistic studies). An estimated six-shot V 50 for the clothing system was calculated as 102 m/s. The distance at which the projectile would have decelerated from the muzzle of the weapon to this velocity in free flight was triple the recognised effective range of weapons of the era suggesting that the clothing system would provide limited protection for the wearer. The estimated V 50 was also compared with recorded bounce-and-roll data; this suggested that the clothing system could provide some protection to the wearer from ricochets. Finally, potential wounding behind the clothing system was investigated; the results compared favourably with seventeenth century medical writings.

Previous studies on the transference of gunshot residue (GSR) have shown that GSR can be transferred to surfaces through everyday activities and can persist on surfaces. Being that all police departments operate differently and have different spaces, GSR can be transferred and accumulates in different areas. Samples were collected from persons and surfaces in and around the Scranton Police Department and tested by scanning electron microscopy to identify GSR. Surfaces included police car seats, gun holsters, clothing around holsters, and belts around holsters. The results of the study showed that of the 25 samples collected, 40% contained at least one particle that was "characteristic of primer GSR", 64% contained at least one particle that was "consistent with primer GSR", and 92% contained at least one particle considered "commonly associated with primer GSR". This research characterizes where GSR is transferred within and around the police department. This data can be used to implement cleaning procedures or methods for decontamination. This study continues to strengthen the body of knowledge surrounding transferring of GSR.

Three intermediate-range shots from a Browning, model 1955, 7.65 mm caliber, pistol were fired from the driver's seat of a car at a woman in the passenger seat. She sustained three wounds: An, ultimately fatal, penetrating head wound, a graze wound across her forehead, and a tangential, perforating, wound, with bullet entry over the medial sternum and exit through the right flank. Neither postmortem CT nor forensic autopsy discovered bony thoracic injuries or perforations of the thoracoabdominal cavities. There was pulmonary contusion in the medial lobe of the right lung and hemorrhage in the adipose tissue around the right kidney. The tangential bullet had left an almost 40-cm-long wound channel through a pronounced layer of subcutaneous fat. Based on 3D reconstructed CT-data determinations, a straight bullet trajectory between entry and exit wounds would have traversed the abdominothoracic cavities, right lung, and liver. The actual trajectory, however, described a prominent curve, without signs of deflection by bone. Postulated explanations for this unusual bullet track are that the woman was twisting her body in a dynamic scene when the bullet struck; further, due to its shallow angle of incidence on the skin, the bullet was deflected to an intracutaneous path. Additionally, soft tissue resistance may have caused the bullet to yaw. Caution should, thus, be exercised when reconstructing bullet trajectories solely from entry and exist wounds, also for bullet wounds through basically homogenous soft tissues., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

The article presents the experimental study results of damaged clothes imitators' (coarse calico) features in consequence of shot by ammunitions with hollow-point bullet from a 12-gauge fire smoothbore weapon (12×70). The generation mechanism of coarse calico damage during wound of underlying biological human body's imitator by bullet and the factors influencing on mentioned process have been clarified using high-speed video recording.

Objective: To study the morphology of distribution of shot factors on white targets made of coarse calico at different distances., Material and Methods: The study was conducted on 57 experimental damages of targets made of cotton fabric, caused by shots from hunting self-loading Steyr Mannlicher AUG-Z3 carbine of.223 Rem caliber. The number of experimental firings equal 19 was done by 3 shots at the distance from close range to 250 cm. The examination of shot targets was carried out using the visual, metric, stereoscopic (Leica 125M microscope) methods, in ultraviolet rays (LUMATEC SUPERLITE M Series light)., Results: The nature and morphology of distribution of gunshot residue on targets' surfaces made it possible to establish close range firing zones. The nature in which soot is deposited during shot under the conditions of point-blank range and in the first zone of close range (up to 8 cm) allows to establish the position of weapon's transverse plane relative to the target basing on a specific blowout of a gas-powder jet from special design of flame arrestor. The performed experimental shooting from hunting self-loading Steyr Mannlicher AUG-Z3 carbine made it possible to determine the metric and morphological characteristics of the close range firing zones: 1 zone is equal a distance up to 8 cm; 2 zone - up to 30 cm; 3 zone - up to 100 cm from muzzle of weapon. The design features of Steyr Mannlicher AUG-Z3 carbine's flame arrestor allow to identify the type of weapon according to the morphological pattern of target's damage. The complex of obtained data makes it possible to determine the firing distance with high accuracy.

The data of the world literature characterizing the forensic aspects of blunt trauma are generalized and systematized. The issues related to the morphology of damage caused after overcoming an obstacle made of various materials by a bullet, the trajectory of a firearm projectile after overcoming an obstacle, the deformation of a bullet, the transfer of fragments of an obstacle by a bullet, the determination of the distance to the target located behind the damaged barrier, the study of the strength properties of individual human armor protection, the nature of the release of particles of an obstacle. The current state of forensic medical examination of blunt trauma is considered, problems and promising directions of their solution are identified. The importance of using knowledge in the field of theoretical mechanics of deformed solid bodies and high-speed impact interaction of solid bodies is noted.

The aim of the experimental study was to establish the transfer of obstacle's composite material (foamed concrete, magnesite concrete, porcelain stoneware, galvanized sheet steel, wood particle board) by the gunshot projectile on firing by rounds sized 5.45´39 from the special shortened Kalashnikov assault rifle (AKS-74U). The shots were fired through various types of obstacles on different parts of animal carcasses from a distance of 3-5 m. Bullets and their fragments, extracted from the bullet trap or the biological target tissue, after appropriate processing were studied by «Leika M125» microscope, «Hitachi FlexSem1000 II» scanning electronic microscope and «Bruker Quantax 80» energy-dispersive X-Ray spectrometer. The conducted light microscopy of gunshot projectiles' fragments, which had overcome the obstacle, revealed the presence of a specific deformation of the bullet head at its penetration of each type of investigated obstacles. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-Ray analysis (EDX) have revealed in each case the presence of obstacle particles overlaying over the entire surface of either deformed bullets or their fragments. The performed experimental study has shown that it is possible to establish the fact of person's gunshot injury through a composite obstacle by the use of SEM/EDX.

The aim of this study was to establish the degree of projectile incidence angle with obstacle on forensic medical characteristic of gunshot injuries arising from smoothbore weapon fire and bullet ricochet. Based on the comprehensive forensic study results of experimental entry gunshot injuries, statistically significant differences in the following morphological signs were found for two ranges of incidence angle values (10-20° and 30-50°): «Number of MD», «Length 1 MD», «Length 2 MD», «Width 1 MD», «Orientation of AD to the conventional clock face relative to MD 1 or to the group of largest MD (max. value)». The medians and limits of 99% confidence intervals of these features values were observed depending on the range of incidence angle values. The revealed patterns can be used in expert practice during forensic medical examination of gunshot injuries formed as a result of a projectile ricochet after smoothbore weapon fire, as well as to develop a methodology for conducting a forensic study of this gunshot injury type.

Aim of this study is to establish the distance and spacing of gunshot wound in the conditions of after-penetration target location. The experimental studies series on shooting coarse colico targets located behind a triplex (car windshield) with record of results by a high-speed camera with a frequency of 1000 frames per second, followed by a study of the affected targets by routine and modern methods (scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersion analysis) were performed. Established results showed that fragments of projectile that overcame an obstacle and secondary projectiles have a rather stable zoning distribution behind an obstacle at a distance up to 2.5 m from the obstacle. The most informative diagnosis of an after-penetration wound distance zone is based on the character of the firearm projectile fragments dispersion, manifestation of lead particles thermal exposure from its sleeve and secondary projectiles fragments formed under the effect of shock wave superimposement in the obstacle material.

In molecular ballistics, where traces originating from the use of firearms against biological targets are investigated, "backspatter" traces are of particular importance. This biological material comprising blood and tissue from the victim is propelled back from the bullet entry site towards the direction of the shooter and can consolidate and persist on the inner and outer surfaces of the firearm, from where it can be collected and analyzed. Thus, a connection between the weapon and the victim can be established solely by molecular biological trace analysis. For the criminalistic investigation of gun-related crimes, the determination of the distance between the weapon and the victim can be of critical importance in reconstructing the circumstances of a crime. In this study, we investigated possible correlations between the shooting distance and the amount of backspatter in/on the used firearm. To this purpose, we employed a previously established skull model and performed shootings in triplicates from various distances up to 50 cm with two types of handguns (pistol and revolver). Backspatter was collected from various sampling locations, and DNA contents were quantified. A post-shooting wound channel evaluation was conducted by optical and radiological evaluation. The obtained DNA yields varied considerably between replicates from the same and from different distances. In contrast, apart from contact shots, no meaningful differences were observable in wound channel evaluations. In summary, no meaningful correlation between backspatter distribution and DNA yields, the shooting distance and the condition of the wound channel could be established.

An entry wound normally carries more macroscopic evidence than found in exit wounds. In addition to common wound characteristics of an entry wound such as an abrasion collar, burn marks etc., large amounts of trace evidences from the bullet and gun such as gunshot residues, powder tattoo, grease ring (bullet wipe) etc., are also present in entry wounds making them a richer source of evidence than exit wounds. This forensic-based study explores the low-angled entry wound characteristics of AK rifle bullets (7,62 mm × 39 mm) on porcine skin. This demonstrated a special entry wound characteristic similar to the commonly reported "abrasion ring" but differs in structure with an abraded area around the entry wounds and more significantly damaged outer margins. A significant inverse relationship between the AK bullet's approaching angle and the length of the external entry wound has also been reported in this work, with each finding contributing new knowledge to the forensic pathology of gunshot wounds. The findings of this study also have the potential to aid in shooting incident reconstructions., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd and Faculty of Forensic and Legal Medicine. All rights reserved.)

This study examines the potential formation of land and groove rifling characteristics in bullet wipe residue deposited on textile fabrics. Textile fabrics comprised of natural, synthetic, semi-synthetic, and blended fibers were damaged either individually or as triplicate layers using two different ammunition types: Winchester WinClean 115 grain 9 mm Luger BEB and Speer 115 grain 9 mm Luger TMJ. Each ammunition type was fired in triplicate using a 9 mm Luger caliber Glock 17 at a distance of approximately 6 feet at normal incidence to the target. The bullet hole was first observed under a stereomicroscope, photographed under tungsten and infrared illumination to observe chemical residues, and subsequently tested for the presence of copper and lead residues. The preliminary chemical results show that land and groove rifling class characteristics can form in bullet wipe residue deposited on textile fabrics. The composition of the fabric, cleanliness of the interior surface of the firearm barrel, presence of intervening layers of fabric, and the bullet type are all potential contributing factors to the detection of rifling characteristics.

A mathematical simulation of the internal ballistics of a shot from a gun, depending on the design of the charge of the gun, has been performed. A general system of equations defining the unsteady movement of a two-phase gas–powder mixture in the channel of the barrel of a gun in the one-dimensional approximation is presented. Results of simulation of a shot from a gun charged with tubular powder or chopped powder are presented. The influence of the gradual ignition of a powder in a gun and of its nonstationary and erosion burning in it on the parameters of the ballistic process in the gun and the influence of the mass and disposition of an igniter in the gun on the dynamics of a shot from it were investigated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on its intrinsic mass and velocity, a bullet has an upper limit of wounding potential. Actual wound severity is a function of the bullet construction and trajectory, as well as the properties of the tissues traversed. Interpreting physicians must evaluate the bullet trajectory and describe patterns of injury resulting from the effect of energy transfer from the projectile into living tissue. A basic understanding of firearms, projectiles, and wound ballistics can help the interpreting physicians in conceptualizing these injuries and interpreting these cases., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Maxillofacial firearm-related injuries vary in extent and severity because of the characteristics and behaviour of the projectile(s), and the complexity of the anatomical structures involved, whereas the degree of tissue disruption is also affected by the distance of the shot. In low-energy injuries there is limited damage to the underlying skeleton, which usually dominates the clinical picture, dictating a more straightforward therapeutic approach. High-energy injuries are associated with extensive hard and soft tissue disruption, and are characterized by a surrounding zone of damaged tissue that is prone to progressive necrosis as a result of compromised blood supply and wound sepsis. Current treatment protocols for these injuries emphasize the importance of serial debridement for effective wound control while favouring early definitive reconstruction., (Copyright © 2014 International Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The aim of the present study was to establish whether the size (diameter and area) of bullet entrance holes in skin varies between distant shots to the anterior and posterior trunk, respectively, when using the same ammunition (in concreto pistol cartridges 9 mm Luger). For that purpose, specimens of porcine skin from the belly region and the back were taken (10 samples each) and shot at from a distance of 1.6 m. The entrance holes were photo-documented under standardised conditions. After image processing for contrast enhancement, the maximum diameter and the area of each skin defect were measured automatically by means of an image analysis system. Both size parameters differed significantly depending on the body region affected. On the back with its comparatively thick dermis, the skin defects were considerably smaller than those on the ventral trunk where the corium is less thick. This difference can be explained by the fact that the elastic properties of skin are strongly determined by the connective tissue which is especially rich in fibres. The study results were consistent with the authors' casework experience and support the assumption that the entrance site of gunshot wounds has a major influence on the size of the bullet hole in skin., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

The objective of the present study was to reveal the objective topographic and morphological features of entry holes in the cloths produced by the hunting smoothbore weapon shots from different distances using various ('cylinder' and 'choke') adjustable muzzle adapters and the regular cartridges loaded with shotgun pellets in a closing container wad and without it. The study has demonstrated the influence of the specific constructive features of the muzzle adapters and differently loaded cartridges on the mechanisms of damages caused by the gunshots from different distances.

The objective of the present study was to elucidate the objective signs and features of damages to the closing produced by shots fired from a 12-gauge hunting rifle with 'cylinder' and 'choke' muzzle threads that allow to determine the concrete distance of the injurious 'compact' and 'relatively compact' action of the multiple-element projectile (shotgun pellets) or that of the container wad used with regular cartridges.

Various approaches are considered to determine the shooting range of a hunting rifle loaded with a Poleva-3 bullet from the specific features of gunshot injuries inflicted by container-type Poleba-3 bullets for hunting rifles.