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Many researchers have investigated the flow and segregation behaviour in model scale experimental silos at normal gravity conditions. However it is known that the stresses experienced by the bulk solid in industrial silos are high when compared to model silos. Therefore it is important to understand the effect of stress level on flow and segregation behaviour and establish the scaling laws governing this behaviour. The objective of this paper is to understand the effect of gravity on the flow and segregation behaviour of bulk solids in a silo centrifuge model. The materials used were two mixtures composed of Polyamide and glass beads. The discharge of two bi-disperse bulk solids in a silo centrifuge model were recorded under accelerations ranging from 1g to 15g. The velocity distribution during discharge was evaluated using Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) techniques and the concentration distribution of large and small particles were obtained by imaging processing techniques. The flow and segregation behaviour at high gravities were then quantified and compared with the empirical equations available in the literature.

In this paper, the capability of two major methods for modelling two-phase flow systems, coupled discrete element method and computational fluid dynamics (DEM-CFD) and smoothed particle hydrodynamics and discrete element method (SPH-DEM), is investigated. The particle phase is modelled using the discrete element method DEM, while the fluid phase is described using either a mesh-based (CFD) or a mesh-less (SPH) method. Comparisons are performed to address algorithmic differences between these methods using a series of verification test cases, prior to its application to more complex systems. The present study describes a comprehensive verification for the fluid-particle simulations with -two different test cases: single particle sedimentation and sedimentation of a constant porosity block. In each case the simulation results are compared with the corresponding analytical solutions showing a good agreement in each case.

The flow behaviour of granular materials is relevant for many industrial applications including the pharmaceutical, chemical, consumer goods and food industries. A key issue is the accurate characterisation of these powders under different loading conditions and flow regimes, for example in mixers, pneumatic conveyors and silo filling and discharge. This paper explores the experimental aspects of cohesive powder handling at different compaction levels and flow regimes, namely inertial and quasi-static regimes. So far, laboratory element test set-ups capable of defining the full stress states at very low compaction levels have not been fully explored in literature. In contrast the mechanical behaviour of cohesive powders under relatively high consolidation stress (several kPa upward) can be carefully measured using element tests such as biaxial test, true triaxial and hollow cylinder tests. However in practice these tests are expensive and slow to conduct and are almost never performed for many industrial applications requiring material characterisation. Here we investigate simpler techniques that could be used for filling this important gap with the focus of providing test data for model calibration and simulation validation in line with the spirit of the European Commission funded PARDEM Marie Curie ITN Project. We perform particle and bulk characterisation on limestone powder with 4.7µm and 31.3 µm mean particle size, detergent powder with differences in formulation, cocoa powder with low and high fat content - relevant for different industrial applications. Of particular significance is the 4.7µm limestone powder which is the PARDEM reference powder that have been created and extensively used in a collaborative European PARDEM Project (www.pardem.eu). In the inertial, low consolidation stress regimes - more relevant for powder transport and conveying applications - we present experimental findings on the flowability and avalanching behaviour of the reference material in a rotating drum. On the other hand, in the quasi-static, higher consolidation regime, we perform shear tests with the Edinburgh Powder Tester (EPT), an extended uniaxial tester and the commercially available Freeman FT4 Powder Rheometer. For macroscopic quantities, we report the unconfined yield strength as a function of applied stress. These material characteristics provide important scientific insights for developing innovative solutions for cohesive powder handling problems. From these experiments and for best practice guideline, we highlight subtle issues associated with the experimental setup and measurements. The experiments lead to a rich quantitative description of the flow behaviour and failure properties of the materials which provide the material data for DEM model calibration and validation.

This paper presents an analytical solution for the solid stresses in a silo with an internal tube. The research was conducted to support the design of a group of full scale silos with large inner concrete tubes. The silos were blasted and formed out of solid rock underground for storing iron ore pellets. Each of these silos is 40m in diameter and has a 10m diameter concrete tube with five levels of openings constructed at the centre of each rock silo. A large scale model was constructed to investigate the stress regime for the stored pellets and to evaluate the solids flow pattern and the loading on the concrete tube. This paper focuses on the development of an analytical solution for stresses in the iron ore pellets in the silo and the effect of the central tube on the stress regimes. The solution is verified using finite element analysis before being applied to analyse stresses in the solid in the full scale silo and the effect of the size of the tube.

In this study, the behaviour of iron ore fines with varying levels of adhesion was investigated using a confined compression test and a uniaxial test. The uniaxial test was conducted using the semi-automated uniaxial EPT tester in which the cohesive strength of a bulk solid is evaluated from an unconfined compression test following a period of consolidation to a pre-defined vertical stress. The iron ore fines were also tested by measuring both the vertical and circumferential strains on the cylindrical container walls under vertical loading in a separate confined compression tester – the K0 tester, to determine the lateral pressure ratio. Discrete Element Method simulations of both experiments were carried out and the predictions were compared with the experimental observations. A recently developed DEM contact model for cohesive solids, an Elasto-Plastic Adhesive model, was used. This particle contact model uses hysteretic non-linear loading and unloading paths and an adhesion parameter which is a function of the maximum contact overlap. The model parameters for the simulations are phenomenologically based to reproduce the key bulk characteristics exhibited by the solid. The simulation results show a good agreement in capturing the stress history dependent behaviour depicted by the flow function of the cohesive iron ore fines while also providing a reasonably good match for the lateral pressure ratio observed during the confined compression K0 tests. This demonstrates the potential for the DEM model to be used in the simulation of bulk handling applications.

Bulk handling of powders and granular solids is common in many industries and often gives rise to handling difficulties especially when the material exhibits complex cohesive behaviour. For example, high storage stresses in a silo can lead to high cohesive strength of the stored solid, which may in turn cause blockages such as ratholing or arching near the outlet during discharge. This paper presents a Discrete Element Method study of discharge of a granular solid with varying levels of cohesion from a flat-bottomed silo. The DEM simulations were conducted using the commercial EDEM code with a recently developed DEM contact model for cohesive solids implemented through an API. The contact model is based on an elasto-plastic contact with adhesion and uses hysteretic non-linear loading and unloading paths to model the elastic-plastic contact deformation. The adhesion parameter is a function of the maximum contact overlap. The model has been shown to be able to predict the stress history dependent behaviour depicted by a flow function of the material. The effects of cohesion on the discharge rate and flow pattern in the silo are investigated. The predicted discharge rates are compared for the varying levels of cohesion and the effect of adhesion is evaluated. The ability of the contact model to qualitatively predict the phenomena that are present in the discharge of a silo has been shown with the salient feature of mixed flow from a flat bottomed hopper identified in the simulation.