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This research was carried out in the field of research and application of the Faculty of Agriculture at the Osman Bey Campus of Harran University during the 2015-2016 summer breeding season in Sanliurfa. In the research; tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea), the British grass (Lolium perenne), chewing red fescue (Festuca rubra L. subsp. Commutator), creeping red fescue (Festuca rubra L. subsp. rubra), sheep fescue (Festuca ovina), Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) was used as a material and the random blocks were set up with 3 replications according to the trial design. In this study; turf wet grass yield (kg da-1), grass dry grass yield (kg da-1), emergence rate (day), winter resistance (1-9), covering speed (day), coating degree (%), leaf texture (1 -9), number of siblings (1-5), and degree of sparseness (1-9) were examined. According to the trial findings; It would be appropriate to use the Golden Gate variety of the reed ball (Festuca arundinaceae) of the warm season grass species that can be recommended for the ecological conditions of Sanliurfa.

The aim of this study is to determine adaptation and quality parameters of some cool season turfgrass cultivars and species, In the scope of this study, leaf form, variation of leaf colour according to the seasons, tiller number, thinning ratio, weed ratio and general appearance of the species were determined. The experiment was established according to confounding design with four replications in Samsun Conditions at November, 2010. According to 1000 seed weight and characteristics of the plants seeding ratios were determined as pure and viable seed as follows; Lolium perenne 40 g m-2, Festuca rubra var. rubra and Festuca rubra var. commutata 30 g m-2, Festuca arundinacea 40 g m-2, Poa pratensis 20 g m-2, Festuca rubra trichophylla 30 g m-2, Agrostis stolonifera and Agrostis tenuis 5 g m-2, Festuca ovina 25 g m-2. According to the results obtained from this study it was determined that species/cultivars have some superiority to each other because of their different morphological and physiological characteristics. When we consider weed competition, Lolium perenne and Festuca arundinaceae cultivars have to be added to the mixture in order to decrease weed competition. There was colour variation distinctively depending on the seasons for all species. But, compare to the others, cultivars of Agrostis sp. and Poa pratensis cultivars have the potential to keep leaf colour in different seasons. Leaf form and appearance of Festuca rubra, Poa trivialis and Festuca ovina are better than the others. In order to keep good conditions of turfgrass areas, especially after cutting in summer period, Poa pratensis and Poa trivialis should added in mixtures to get benefit their higher regenerating power.

Festuca species have been used for forage, turf, soil conservation and ornamental purpose, which highlighted the importance of these species. This study was conducted to determine genetic variability among the 48 accessions of fine-leaved fescue from different regions of Iran using ISSR markers. To understand genetic relationships among these accessions, unweight pair-group method (UPGMA) were applied to the ISSR marker data set. The ten ISSR primers amplified in total 189 loci for 48 Festuca ovina accessions. All of the amplified loci were polymorphic. A high level of genetic diversity was detected in F. ovina accessions with an average genetic diversity index of 1.522. The expected heterozygosity (He) for the primers varied from 0.153 to 0.347. According to the ISSR data, accessions grouped in two main and seven sub clusters. Results indicated that each of the main clusters include plants that demonstrate Green and Silver phenotypes. Little congruence between the groupings patterns of accessions of F. ovina based on ISSR markers data and categorization based on phenotypes as a Green and Silver, was observed. In conclusion results reveal the high genetic diversity among F. ovina accessions, which can be used for alternative conservation and breeding programs.

Duplicative horizontal gene transfer may bring two previously separated homologous genes together, which may raise questions about the interplay between the gene products. One such gene pair is the “native” PgiC1 and “foreign” PgiC2 in the perennial grass Festuca ovina. Both PgiC1 and PgiC2 encode cytosolic phosphoglucose isomerase, a dimeric enzyme whose proper binding is functionally essential. Here, we use biophysical simulations to explore the inter-monomer binding of the two homodimers and the heterodimer that can be produced by PgiC1 and PgiC2 in F. ovina. Using simulated native-state ensembles, we examine the structural properties and binding tightness of the dimers. In addition, we investigate their ability to withstand dissociation when pulled by a force. Our results suggest that the inter-monomer binding is tighter in the PgiC2 than the PgiC1 homodimer, which could explain the more frequent occurrence of the foreign PgiC2 homodimer in dry habitats. We further find that the PgiC1 and PgiC2 monomers are compatible with heterodimer formation; the computed binding tightness is comparable to that of the PgiC1 homodimer. Enhanced homodimer stability and capability of heterodimer formation with PgiC1 are properties of PgiC2 that may contribute to the retaining of the otherwise redundant PgiC2 gene.

The two factors defining male reproductive success in plants are pollen quantity and quality, but our knowledge about the importance of pollen quality is limited due to methodological constraints. Pollen quality in terms of chemical composition may be either genetically fixed for high performance independent of environmental conditions, or it may be plastic to maximize reproductive output under different environmental conditions. In this study, we validated a new approach for studying the role of chemical composition of pollen in adaptation to local climate. The approach is based on high‐throughput Fourier infrared (FTIR) characterization and biochemical interpretation of pollen chemical composition in response to environmental conditions. The study covered three grass species, Poa alpina, Anthoxanthum odoratum, and Festuca ovina. For each species, plants were grown from seeds of three populations with wide geographic and climate variation. Each individual plant was divided into four genetically identical clones which were grown in different controlled environments (high and low levels of temperature and nutrients). In total, 389 samples were measured using a high‐throughput FTIR spectrometer. The biochemical fingerprints of pollen were species and population specific, and plastic in response to different environmental conditions. The response was most pronounced for temperature, influencing the levels of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates in pollen of all species. Furthermore, there is considerable variation in plasticity of the chemical composition of pollen among species and populations. The use of high‐throughput FTIR spectroscopy provides fast, cheap, and simple assessment of the chemical composition of pollen. In combination with controlled‐condition growth experiments and multivariate analyses, FTIR spectroscopy opens up for studies of the adaptive role of pollen that until now has been difficult with available methodology. The approach can easily be extended to other species and environmental conditions and has the potential to significantly increase our understanding of plant male function.

Symbiotic Epichloë species are fungal endophytes of cool-season grasses that can produce alkaloids with toxicity to vertebrates and/or invertebrates. Monitoring infections and presence of alkaloids in grasses infected with Epichloë species can provide an estimate of possible intoxication risks for livestock. We sampled 3,046 individuals of 13 different grass species in three regions on 150 study sites in Germany. We determined infection rates and used PCR to identify Epichloë species diversity based on the presence of different alkaloid biosynthesis genes, then confirmed the possible chemotypes with high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)/ultraperformance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) measurements. Infections of Epichloë spp. were found in Festuca pratensis Huds. (81%), Festuca ovina L. aggregate (agg.) (73%), Lolium perenne L. (15%), Festuca rubra L. (15%) and Dactylis glomerata L. (8%). The other eight grass species did not appear to be infected. For the majority of Epichloë-infected L. perenne samples (98%), the alkaloids lolitrem B and peramine were present, but ergovaline was not detected, which was consistent with the genetic evaluation, as dmaW, the gene encoding the first step of the ergot alkaloid biosynthesis pathway, was absent. Epichloë uncinata in F. pratensis produced anti-insect loline compounds. The Epichloë spp. observed in the F. ovina agg. samples showed the greatest level of diversity, and different intermediates of the indole-diterpene pathway could be detected. Epichloë infection rates alone are insufficient to estimate intoxication risks for livestock, as other factors, like the ability of the endophyte to produce the alkaloids, also need to be assessed. IMPORTANCE Severe problems of livestock intoxication from Epichloë-infected forage grasses have been reported from New Zealand, Australia, and the United States, but much less frequently from Europe, and particularly not from Germany. Nevertheless, it is important to monitor infection rates and alkaloids of grasses with Epichloë fungi to estimate possible intoxication risks. Most studies focus on agricultural grass species like Lolium perenne and Festuca arundinacea, but other cool-season grass species can also be infected. We show that in Germany, infection rates and alkaloids differ between grass species and that some of the alkaloids can be toxic to livestock. Changes in grassland management due to changing climate, especially with a shift toward grasslands dominated with Epichloë-infected species such as Lolium perenne, may result in greater numbers of intoxicated livestock in the near future. We therefore suggest regular monitoring of grass species for infections and alkaloids and call for maintaining heterogenous grasslands for livestock.

This study examined the effects of soil heavy metals, macronutrients, texture and pH as well as plant species richness and composition on soil respiration, enzymatic activity, microbial biomass, metabolic quotient (qCO2) and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) at sites of historical Zn–Pb mining. The study was conducted both on a large scale (65 heaps scattered over the area of 750 km2) and on a small scale (25 plots along two 48 m transects extending from heaps to adjacent fallow fields). Total concentrations of metals exceeded 400 (Cd), 20,000 (Pb) and 80,000 (Zn) mg kg−1 at the most polluted sites. Although they decreased along the heap-fallow direction, they still remained above environmental standards in fallow soils. In contrast, some soluble metal forms increased with the increasing distance from heaps. Soil organic matter had the strongest positive effect on most microbial parameters. Total and/or available heavy metals exhibited significant negative effects on microbial biomass, enzymatic activity and AMF, and a positive effect on qCO2. Organic matter alleviated negative effects of heavy metals on microorganisms; they were not observed where the increase in the contamination was accompanied by the increase in organic matter content. Plant species richness affected positively enzymatic activity and mycorrhization level. Plant species composition possibly contributed to the formation of soil microbial communities, but its effect was entangled in that of heavy metals as plant communities changed along pollution gradients (from metal-tolerant grasslands dominated by Festuca ovina to calcareous grasslands and ruderal communities at less polluted sites).

Phosphogypsum (PG) is a by-product of phosphate fertilizer production. This study is the first to investigate Bromis inermis and Festuca ovina root morphology and colonization with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and dark septate endophytes (DSE) in pure PG and PG with a soil cap (soil). Root length density was significantly lower for plants on PG than on soil and both plant species were colonized with AMF and DSE, with lower frequency and intensity in PG. Phosphorus (20 times), calcium (35 times) and sulphur (50 times) were significantly higher in PG than in soil; resulting higher root tissue concentrations were significantly negatively correlated with mycorrhizal colonization for Festuca but not Bromus. Higher fungal colonization of Bromus, especially with DSE known to be prevalent in extreme environments, may be responsible for its better performance on PG relative to Festuca.

Butterflies belong to one of the most intensively studied invertebrate groups. However, detailed information on the larval ecology is still lacking in many species. This is especially true for the grass-feeding subfamily Satyrinae, to which our study species, the Woodland Ringlet (Erebia medusa Fabricius, 1787), belongs. At the habitat level, E. medusa exhibits a clear preference for abandoned grasslands with litter accumulation. In this study, we assessed the host-plant and oviposition preferences of E. medusa at the microhabitat level, i.e., within occupied habitat patches, in the Diemel Valley (Central Germany). Only two species of grass, Festuca ovina agg. and F. rubra agg., were systematically used for oviposition. Egg density was positively correlated with patchiness of herb layer, potential daily length of sunshine, and abandonment. However, the explanatory power of these parameters was low. We attribute this primarily to an ample supply of host plants growing under suitable conditions in the occupied habitat patches of E. medusa. The positive effect of abandonment is probably due to the fact that the average height of oviposition sites of E. medusa is greater than in most other satyrine species, which renders the eggs more vulnerable to mechanical disturbance. Moreover, thick layers of litter, which develop after the cessation of grazing or mowing, might be important as they modify the microclimate at the locations of the immature stages.

Native grasses are important for the enhancement of landscape. Agropyron cristatum, A.intermedium, Festuca ovina, Festuca arundinaceae, Cynodon dactylon, Bromus inermis and B. confinis are the potential sources of low maintenance turfgrasses for semi-arid regions. This greenhouse study examined the interaction of four different levels of soil water contents with 75, 50, and 25% field capacity (FC) and non-irrigation on physiological and biochemical responses of each accession. Total carbohydrate and sucrose contents of F. arundinaceae were increased significantly under non-irrigated treatment but decreased in the other genotypes. Proline, hydrogen peroxide, and total ascorbate increased in all the species under drought. Also, with decreased soil water content, H2O2 content increased up to 50% in F. arundinaceae. Protein content of F. arundinacea increased significantly under drought stress compared to the control; however, it decreased in other genotypes. Ascorbate peroxidase activities were increased in Festuca sp. and decreased in A. cristatum. It was found that F. arundinacea was able to maintain higher relative water content level and osmotic potential in non-irrigated drought treatment than B. inermis and A. cristatum. It may be speculated that the observed drought stress tolerance was associated with the ability of accumulating compatible solutes and H2O2 signaling cascade. Also, the high activity of ascorbate peroxidase resulted in protection against oxidative damage. It seems that this mechanism worked better in F. arundinacea to be used as low maintenance turfgrass.

Mobilization of cadmium accumulated in Festuca ovina L. roots and simultaneous immobilization of this metal by soil were studied in three chambers connected into one system containing: (1) roots in an extractant solution, (2) soil in an extractant solution, and (3) extractant solution alone. Six extractants sterilized by filtration were used: 0.1 M NaNO3 (NA), 0.1 mM desferrioxamine B (NA + DFOB) and 1 mM citric acid (NA + CA) in NA, and a water extract of soil (SE) supplemented with the same compounds. SE mobilized 53% of the Cd introduced to the system with roots. The addition of DFOB or CA to SE increased Cd extraction from roots by 17%, while the same compounds introduced to NA did not change mobilization of Cd (60% efficiency). Regardless of the extractant used, mobilization of Cd from roots was about 25% lower when extraction was done in a control system without soil. The metal released from roots was gradually immobilized by the soils loaded into all systems during a 4-day incubation. Seque...

Anthropogenic disturbance in alpine ecosystems is on the increase, and knowledge is needed about restoration methods and their long-term effects in these environments. Sowing seeds from introduced grass species has been a common approach to encourage the growth of new vegetation, but there is disagreement over the long-term effects. Little is known about native alternatives and their ability to promote establishment of native vegetation. We compared vegetation cover, species richness and soil conditions in a long-term field experiment in seeded sites and unseeded reference sites 21 years after seeding with a commercial seed mixture. We also tested germination and establishment of an introduced grass Festuca rubra and its native congener Festuca ovina and their effect on the establishment of the native shrub Betula nana in a greenhouse experiment in different soil types. In the long-term field experiment, the introduced Festuca species outcompeted rather than facilitated natural vegetation recovery in the seeded sites. Total vegetation cover was significantly higher in the seeded sites, but native vegetation cover and species richness were significantly higher in the unseeded sites. In the greenhouse experiment, the native F. ovina showed a tendency to facilitate the seedlings of B. nana in contrast to the introduced F. rubra , which clearly suppressed B. nana seedlings. However, seedlings of the native shrub B. nana performed best when seeded without any of the species that are presumed to be facilitators or nurse species. Suppression by seeded grass was stronger on commercial peat soil compared to fine mineral soil and coarse soil. When seeding is used in restoration efforts, it is important to choose species that do not compete strongly with the natural vegetation. Fertilization and other soil improvements may even favor strong seeded competitors at the expense of native species. Hence the combination of seeding introduced species and improving the soil may delay successful alpine natural vegetation recovery.

Background Phosphoglucose isomerase (PGI, EC 5.3.1.9) is an essential metabolic enzyme in all eukaryotes. An earlier study of the PgiC1 gene, which encodes cytosolic PGI in the grass Festuca ovina L., revealed a marked difference in the levels of nucleotide polymorphism between the 5’ and 3’ portions of the gene. Methods In the present study, we characterized the sequence polymorphism in F. ovina PgiC1 in more detail and examined possible explanations for the non-uniform pattern of nucleotide polymorphism across the gene. Results Our study confirms that the two portions of the PgiC1 gene show substantially different levels of DNA polymorphism and also suggests that the peptide encoded by the 3’ portion of PgiC1 is functionally and structurally more important than that encoded by the 5’ portion. Although there was some evidence of purifying selection (d N/d S test) on the 5’ portion of the gene, the signature of purifying selection was considerably stronger on the 3’ portion of the gene (d N/d S and McDonald–Kreitman tests). Several tests support the action of balancing selection within the 5’ portion of the gene. Wall’s B and Q tests were significant only for the 5’ portion of the gene. There were also marked peaks of nucleotide diversity, Tajima’s D and the d N/d S ratio at or around a PgiC1 codon site (within the 5’ portion of the gene) that a previous study had suggested was subject to positive diversifying selection. Conclusions Our results suggest that the two portions of the gene have been subject to different selective regimes. Purifying selection appears to have been the main force contributing to the relatively low level of polymorphism within the 3’ portion of the sequence. In contrast, it is possible that balancing selection has contributed to the maintenance of the polymorphism within the 5’ portion of the gene. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s41065-017-0032-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Foggi, B., C. Quercioli, M. Gennai, E. Nardi & M. A. Signorini (2012). Lectotypification of taxa belonging to the “Festuca circummediterranea” group. Candollea 67: 221–228. In English, English and French abstracts. This paper reports the lectotypifications of the names Festuca ovina var. laevis Hack., Festuca ovina subsp. laevis Hack., Festuca circummediterranea Patzke, Festuca duriuscula var. campana N. Terracc. and Festuca campana (N. Terracc.) Alexeev. As the lectotype of Festuca duriuscula var. campana N. Terracc. previously designated by Alexeev is to be considered a neotype, a new lectotype is proposed.

The harsh and stressful growing environment of extensive green roofs especially in arid environments allows a limited range of plant species to survive. Therefore, achieving plantings to survive in such conditions is a significant challenge. This paper describes an experiment investigating plant selections for extensive green roofs based on chilling (cold season) and drought (warm season) conditions of Iran. Nine species were selected from the three major taxonomic and functional plant groups that are commonly used on extensive green roofs including grasses, groundcovers and sedums. The species namely Agropyron cristatum, Festuca aurundinacea, Festuca ovina, Potentila sp., Frankinia thymifolia, Vinca minor, Sedum acre, Sedum spurinum, Carpobrotus edulis were imposed to natural chilling in autumn and winter using a randomized complete block design. For spring and summer, irrigation regimes at levels (48, 72 and 96 h intervals) in a factorial experiment based on a randomized complete block design with four replications were applied. The results showed that Agropyron cristatum, Frankinia thymifolia and Carpobrotus edulis were the best plants from each class. Carpobrotus edulis was the best choice for cold and warm seasons and this was followed by Frankinia thymifolia and Potentila sp. Vinca minor performed well in the cold seasons and Sedum spurinum appeared to be excellent in the warm seasons. The plants of the experiment showed significantly different appearances in different watering regimes. Little differences in drought tolerances were observed among the forbs and grasses, which must be watered during warm seasons. However, the succulents responded very well to the drought and low watering regimes. Overall, succulents and groundcovers were considered more appropriate for application in warm and cold seasons, respectively. According to the findings, drought and cold weather conditions cannot be a major obstacle for developing extensive green roofs in Iran if considerations are made on selecting its plant species.

Understanding the microbiological, biochemical and physiological aspects of phytoremediation of soil and water environments polluted to different degrees with heavy metals has very important theoretical and practical implications. In this study, a comparison was made between total cadmium concentration in root and shoot tissues as well as concentrations of particular fractions of Cd immobilized by roots of Festuca ovina (Sheep’s fescue) hydroponically cultivated in nutrient solutions supplemented with 1 μg Cd ml−1 and those cultivated at 10 μg Cd ml−1. After three weeks of F. ovina cultivation, the number of bacterial CFU and the amounts of organic chelators, siderophores, proteins and reducing sugars in the growth medium and on the root surface were higher at 10 than at 1 μg Cd ml−1. The grass also reacted to the high Cd concentration by a decrease in plant growth and dehydrogenase activity in root tissues. The concentration of Cd determined in fractions bound with different strength in roots was significantly dependent on Cd concentration in the growth medium. When the plants were grown at 1 μg Cd ml−1, 9% of the immobilized cadmium was loosely bound to the root surface, 20% was exchangeable adsorbed, and 28% was bound by chelation; at 10 μg Cd ml−1, the respective values were 12%, 25%, and 20%. About 43% of the immobilized cadmium remained in roots after sequential extraction, and bioaccumulation factors in shoots had the same values independently of Cd concentration. At both Cd concentrations, the cadmium translocation index for F. ovina was low (< 1), which is why this grass can be recommended for phytostabilization of the metal under study.

A field replacement experiment was used to study the interspecific interaction among three perennial grasses (Elymus nutans, Festuca sinensis and Festuca ovina) that are distributed widely on the east Qinghai-Tibetan plateau. The experiment consisted of four different species mixtures at four seeding densities and two fertilizer levels. Above-ground biomass, relative yield and complementary effect were determined from harvested shoot dry weights. The results showed that above-ground biomass was greater in all species mixtures than in monocultures. The difference between the observed and expected relative yield was greater than zero in all mixtures for E. nutans and was greater than zero in the F. sinensis/F. ovina mixture, but was below zero in all other mixtures for F. sinensis, and was below zero in all mixtures for F. ovina. The complementary effect was more negative across all seeding densities except at a seeding density of 400 seeds/m2, and was negative across all mixtures except the F. sinensis/F. ovina mixture. In addition, fertilization had an insignificant impact on the relative yield, but a significant impact on the complementary effect. Fertilization enhanced negative interspecific interaction among the species.

Horizontal gene transfer involves the non-sexual interspecific transmission of genetic material. Even if they are initially functional, horizontally transferred genes are expected to deteriorate into non-expressed pseudogenes, unless they become adaptively relevant in the recipient organism. However, little is known about the distributions of natural transgenes within wild species or the adaptive significance of natural transgenes within wild populations. Here, we examine the distribution of a natural plant-to-plant nuclear transgene in relation to environmental variation within a wild population.Festuca ovinais polymorphic for an extra (second) expressed copy of the nuclear gene (PgiC) encoding cytosolic phosphoglucose isomerase, with the extraPgiClocus having been acquired horizontally from the distantly related grass genusPoa.We investigated variation atPgiCin samples ofF. ovinafrom a fine-scale, repeating patchwork of grassland microhabitats, replicated within spatially separated sites. Even after accounting for spatial effects, the distributions ofF. ovinaindividuals carrying the additionalPgiClocus, and one of the enzyme products encoded by the locus, are significantly associated with fine-scale habitat variation. Our results suggest that thePgiCtransgene contributes, together with the unlinked ‘native’PgiClocus, to local adaptation to a fine-scale mosaic of edaphic and biotic grassland microhabitats.

The effects of pipeline construction and reclamation techniques on the restoration of rough fescue plant communities following pipeline construction in southwestern Alberta, Canada were evaluated after 7-40 years. The pipeline construction right-of-way (ROW) sites varied from no recovery of rough fescue grassland to moderate recovery. The ROW sites had a higher proportion of introduced grasses and forbs, less topsoil, and poorer rangeland health than the adjacent undisturbed grassland. Within the ROW sites, less topsoil was present on those with larger diameter pipe and which had topsoil fully stripped from the ROW during construction. Introduced grasses, Festuca ovina (sheep fescue) and Poa compressa (Canada bluegrass), succeeded in establishment following seeding and persisted for at least 40 years. Poa pratensis (Kentucky bluegrass) dominated many of the ROW sites. Contributing factors to moderate recovery of rough fescue grassland were related to post-growing season pipeline construction, ideally, between August and March, summer or fall seeding, and minimum disturbance trench-only stripping. Reclamation practices appeared more important than time since restoration in the restoration of rough fescue grassland.

Pseudovivipary is an environmentally induced flowering abnormality in which vegetative shoots replace seminiferous (sexual) inflorescences. Pseudovivipary is usually retained in transplantation experiments, indicating that the trait is not solely induced by the growing environment. Pseudovivipary is the defining characteristic of Festuca vivipara, and arguably the only feature separating this species from its closest seminiferous relative, Festuca ovina. We performed phylogenetic and population genetic analysis on sympatric F. ovina and F. vivipara samples to establish whether pseudovivipary is an adaptive trait that accurately defines the separation of genetically distinct Festuca species. Chloroplast and nuclear marker-based analyses revealed that variation at a geographical level can exceed that between F. vivipara and F. ovina. We deduced that F. vivipara is a recent species that frequently arises independently within F. ovina populations and has not accumulated significant genetic differentiation from its progenitor. We inferred local gene flow between the species. We identified one amplified fragment length polymorphism marker that may be linked to a pseudovivipary-related region of the genome, and several other markers provide evidence of regional local adaptation in Festuca populations. We conclude that F. vivipara can only be appropriately recognized as a morphologically and ecologically distinct species; it lacks genetic differentiation from its relatives. This is the first report of a 'failure in normal flowering development' that repeatedly appears to be adaptive, such that the trait responsible for species recognition constantly reappears on a local basis.

A natural hybridization in grasses (Poaceae) frequently occurs in the area where the distribution ranges of parental species overlap (e.g. Smith 1942, Tzvelev 1976, Soltis & Soltis 2009, Nobis 2013, Nobis et al. 2017, Wölk & Röser 2017). Such phenomenon can be observed also in the genus Festuca Linnaeus (1753: 73) between Festuca ovina Linnaeus (1753: 73) and Festuca polesica Zapałowicz (1904: 303) that distribution ranges overlap. The hybrid individuals are morphologically intermediate between those of the parental species and can be easily distinguished by leaf anatomy (Bednarska 2009). In 2009, the first author of the present paper described this hybrid as a nothospecies Festuca ×polovina Bednarska (2009: 32), providing a protologue in Latin with a detailed description of the taxon, indication of diagnostic characters, and a list of herbaria where the holotype and isotypes are stored. However, no direct citation of a particular herbarium specimen was provided for the nomenclatural type as required by Art. 40 of the ICN (McNeill et al. 2012), and hence the name F. ×polovina was not validly published.

A PCR based survey of Festuca ovina plants from populations around the southern part of the Baltic Sea demonstrates both geographic and molecular variation in the enzyme gene PgiC2, horizontally transferred from a Poa-species. Our results show that PgiC2-a natural functional nuclear transgene-is not a local ephemeral phenomenon but is present in a very large number of individuals. We find also that its frequency is geographically variable and that it appears in more than one molecular form. The chloroplast variation in the region does not indicate any distinct subdivision due to different colonization routes after the last glaciation. Our data illustrate the geographic and molecular variation that may occur in natural populations with a polymorphic, unfixed transgene affected by diverse kinds of mutational and evolutionary processes.

The relative competitive abilities of Elymus nutans, Festuca sinensis and Festuca ovina were studied in the east Qinghai‐Tibetan plateau. Emergence percentage, numbers of plants established, establishment rate and the relative competitive intensity (RCI) based on harvested shoot biomass were measured for the three species as monocultures and in all possible combinations of mixtures in four randomised complete blocks. In the seedling stage, ANOVA showed that emergence percentage was density independent and was greatest for E. nutans, somewhat lower for F. sinensis, and least for F. ovina. The multiple comparisons (Tukey HSD) showed that the emergence percentage was significantly different among the three species. In the adult stage, the result of correlation analysis showed that the establishment rate of a species was density dependent. The multiple comparisons show that the established numbers and establishment rate were significantly different am ong the three species. At the same time, the comp...

Seedborne systemic endophytic fungi of grasses are thought to be plant mutualists, because they have been shown to improve their host's resistance against biotic and abiotic stresses. The interactions in plant-endophyte associations vary from mutualistic to parasitic with environmental conditions and the genotypes of interacting species. The possible pros and cons of endophytic fungi are expected to be most evident during the seedling establishment, where host fitness is most directly affected. If this holds true, endophytes may play a focal role in local adaptation of hosts to different environments. We examined if endophyte-infected and uninfected seeds and seedlings of two native grass species, Festuca rubra and F. ovina, differ in seed germination and seedling growth rates under greenhouse conditions. The germination of F. rubra seeds was also studied in the field. This is the first time that the effects of Epichloë endophyte on seedling establishment of fine fescues from natural populations have been experimentally evaluated. Mother plant (seed family) had a marked effect on many response variables in both grass species. Length and mean biomass of tillers of endophyte-infected (E+) F. ovina seedlings were lower, but root:shoot ratios were higher than in endophyte-free (E-) seedlings. In F. rubra, the effects of the endophyte were dependent on the habitat where the seeds were collected. The E+ seeds from river banks germinated faster than E+ seeds from meadows, and E+ seedlings from the river banks produced fewer but taller and heavier tillers than the other seedlings. Our data suggest that the effects of the endophyte infection on the seedling stage of fine fescues are dependent the species of grass, host genetic background and mother plant habitat. The germination strategy and growth form of E+ red fescue seedlings from river banks may be beneficial to surviving in the harsh conditions of that habitat.

Effects of extra nitrogen (N) input on biomass production, the concentration of N and phosphorus (P) in plant material, and net N mineralization were studied during three growing seasons in a dry acidophilous grassland dominated by Festuca ovina and in a grassland where the tall grass Calamagrostis epigejos was aggressively expanding. In contrast to dry grassland, the Calamagrostis stand utilized more N due to higher plant and microbial demands for soil mineral N, which could prevent the N losses. Additional N supply resulted in the increased net N mineralization mainly in expanding Calamagrostis. There was no effect of N addition on biomass production of Calamagrostis, while a significant increase of total biomass was observed in Festuca in the dry grassland. This higher production was entirely accounted for by the increase in root dry weight. Concentrations of N in the aboveground biomass increased in both Calamagrostis and Festuca dry grassland as a result of N addition. However, P concentrations in Festuca were reduced, while being enhanced in Calamagrostis. The N : P ratio in aboveground biomass significantly increased in both vegetation types studied following N addition, although reaching higher values in dry grassland than in Calamagrostis. This species compensated enhanced N availability with a higher P uptake as compared to Festuca.

Agricultural improvement (addition of fertilizers, liming) of seminatural acidic grasslands across Ireland and the UK has resulted in significant shifts in floristic composition, soil chemistry, and microbial community structure. Although several factors have been proposed as responsible for driving shifts in microbial communities, the exact causes of such changes are not well defined. Phosphate was added to grassland microcosms to investigate the effect on fungal and bacterial communities. Plant species typical of unimproved grasslands (Agrostis capillaris, Festuca ovina) and agriculturally improved grasslands (Lolium perenne) were grown, and phosphate was added 25 days after seed germination, with harvesting after a further 50 days. Phosphate addition significantly increased root biomass (p < 0.001) and shoot biomass (p < 0.05), soil pH (by 0.1 U), and microbial activity (by 5.33 mg triphenylformazan [TPF] g−1 soil; p < 0.001). A slight decrease (by 0.257 mg biomass-C g−1 soil; p < 0.05) in microbial biomass after phosphate addition was found. The presence of plant species significantly decreased soil pH (p < 0.05; by up to 0.2 U) and increased microbial activity (by up to 6.02 mg TPF g−1 soil) but had no significant effect on microbial biomass. Microbial communities were profiled using automated ribosomal intergenic spacer analysis. Multidimensional scaling plots and canonical correspondence analysis revealed that phosphate addition and its interactions with upland grassland plant species resulted in considerable changes in the fungal and bacterial communities of upland soil. The fungal community structure was significantly affected by both phosphate (R = 0.948) and plant species (R = 0.857), and the bacterial community structure was also significantly affected by phosphate (R = 0.758) and plant species (R = 0.753). Differences in microbial community structure following P addition were also revealed by similarity percentage analysis. These data suggest that phosphate application may be an important contributor to microbial community structural change during agricultural management of upland grasslands.

Through the production of litter, plants with different life history strategies are predicted to both affect and be affected by the properties of soil. Competitive species are expected to increase the fertility of, and have a positive growth feedback with, soil, whereas stress-tolerant species should decrease fertility but show no growth feedback. We maintained monocultures of competitive (Lolium perenne and Agrostis capillaris) and stress-tolerant (Festuca ovina and Nardus stricta) grasses on an unproductive grassland for six years. The Nardus soil developed significantly greater inorganic nitrogen than the Agrostis and Festuca soil, and significantly greater soil moisture content than the Festuca soil. However, there were no differences in organic matter content, phosphate or bulk density between the soil types. In a greenhouse assay, each species was grown in soil cores from the different monocultures as well as natural turf. There were significant differences in growth between plant species and soil types. As expected, L. perenne produced the greatest amount of biomass. However, plants grown on Nardus soil were twice as large and had a 21% lower root allocation than plants grown on any of the other soil types. Lolium perenne, A. capillaris and F. ovina had significant negative growth feedbacks with their own soil (−0.460, −0.821 and −0.792, respectively) and N. stricta had a significant positive feedback (0.560). This study highlights the difficulties of predicting how plant traits will affect soil properties.

A segregating second locus, PgiC2, for the enzyme phosphoglucose isomerase (PGIC) is found in the grass sheep's fescue, Festuca ovina. We have earlier reported that a phylogenetic analysis indicates that PgiC2 has been horizontally transferred from the reproductively separated grass genus Poa. Here we extend our analysis to include intron and exon information on 27 PgiC sequences from 18 species representing five genera, and confirm our earlier finding. The origin of PgiC2 can be traced to a group of closely interrelated, polyploid and partially asexual Poa species. The sequence most similar to PgiC2 is found in Poa palustris with a divergence, based on synonymous substitutions, of only 0.67%. This value suggests that the transfer took place less than 600,000 years ago (late Pleistocene), at a time when most extant Poa and Festuca species already existed.

Due to their ploidy levels, their morphological and anatomical characters and their distribution the central alpine Festuca stricta subsp. bauzanina (2n = 8x = 56) and Festuca ovina var. guinochetii (2n = 10x = 70), both belonging to the Festuca valesiaca group, are raised to the specific level. As a new subspecies Festuca bauzanina subsp. rhaetica is described here. The taxa of the polyploid Festuca valesiaca group are morphologically, anatomically and chorologically characterised and an identification key for these taxa in the central Alps is presented.

Verhulitsa-Lutepää piirkonna liivikute taimkattest Vegetation of inland sand knobs in South-Eastern Estonia was studied. 39 plant communities were described and thereafter classified into 7 syntaxonomic units: 1. Calluna vulgaris-Cladina spp. type, 2. Koeleria glauca-Cladina spp. type, 3. Juniperus communis-Arctostaphylos uva-ursi-Cladina spp. type, 4. Festuca ovina-Cladina spp. type, 4.1. Pinus sylvestris-Festuca ovina-Cladina spp. type, Deschampsia flexuosa variant, 4.2. Pinus sylvestris-Festuca ovina-Cladina spp. type, Thymus serpyllum variant, 4.3. Pinus sylvestris-Festuca ovina-Cladina spp. type, Pleurozium schreberi variant. Environmental variables determining the variation structure of samples are the amount (cover) of litter and the total cover of field and moss layers. The species richness of communities depends mostly on the amount of litter and marginally insignificantly (p = 0,051) also on humus horizon thickness. Interpreting the vegetation on 1×1 m sample quadrats as microcoenoses, 415 quadrats were clustered into 23 microcoenose types. The most frequent are the microcoenoses of Cladina arbuscula+Pycnothelia papillaria, Cladina arbuscula+Festuca ovina, Festuca ovina+Cladina arbuscula and Festuca ovina+Pilosella officinarum type, seldom occur microcoenoses of Cetraria islandica+Cladina stellaris and Polytrichum piliferum+Festuca ovina type. In all community types are presented Cladina arbuscula+Festuca ovina and Dicranum polysetum+Cladina arbuscula type microcoenoses but microcoenoses of any type are confined to only one type of communities. To maintain the peculiar features of Estonian inland sand knobs plant communities they must be kept open and in some places also the dense bottom layer vegetation must be removed.

The dimeric metabolic enzyme phosphoglucose isomerase (PGI, EC 5.3.1.9) plays an essential role in energy production. In the grass Festuca ovina, field surveys of enzyme variation suggest that genetic variation at cytosolic PGI (PGIC) may be adaptively important. In the present study, we investigated the molecular basis of the potential adaptive significance of PGIC in F. ovina by analyzing cDNA sequence variation within the PgiC1 gene. Two, complementary, types of selection test both identified PGIC1 codon (amino acid) sites 200 and 173 as candidate targets of positive selection. Both candidate sites involve charge-changing amino acid polymorphisms. On the homology-modeled F. ovina PGIC1 3-D protein structure, the two candidate sites are located on the edge of either the inter-monomer boundary or the inter-domain cleft; examination of the homology-modeled PGIC1 structure suggests that the amino acid changes at the two candidate sites are likely to influence the inter-monomer interaction or the domain-domain packing. Biochemical studies in humans have shown that mutations at several amino acid sites that are located close to the candidate sites in F. ovina, at the inter-monomer boundary or the inter-domain cleft, can significantly change the stability and/or kinetic properties of the PGI enzyme. Molecular evolutionary studies in a wide range of other organisms suggest that PGI amino acid sites with similar locations to those of the candidate sites in F. ovina may be the targets of positive/balancing selection. Candidate sites 200 and 173 are the only sites that appear to discriminate between the two most common PGIC enzyme electromorphs in F. ovina: earlier studies suggest that these electromorphs are implicated in local adaptation to different grassland microhabitats. Our results suggest that PGIC1 sites 200 and 173 are under positive selection in F. ovina.

Identification and classification of numerous Festuca species is still a difficult problem due to the close morphological resemblance. The most difficult fine fescues to identify belong to the Festuca ovina aggregate, which is the largest group in the genus Festuca. Many taxons are considered to be separate species based on quantitative taxonomic characters, differences in ploidy level or the structure of sclerenchyma cells. In order to evaluate the taxonomic value of DNA-based markers, sequence analysis of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS1-5.8S-ITS2) region and the chloroplast trnL (UAA) intron was performed in the ten most problematic fine fescues belonging to the Festuca ovina aggregate. Intraspecific ITS variants were found in a single case while in other cases only intragenomic ITS polymorphisms were detected with 1-2 ambiguous positions. Among the sequences of the trnL (UAA) intron even intragenomic polymorphisms were not detected in any of the Festuca species studied. Thus, the results do not support the species status of these ten taxa.

Festuca specimens were collected on several spots in the Bukk mountains (Northern Hungarian Mountain Range, NE Hungary) in May 2002. On the area called “Galya-kopasza”, within the occurrence spot of Armeria elongata - made up by gabbro as basal rock -, interesting Festuca specimens belonging to the Festuca rupicola group of Festuca ovina agg. were also observed. On the basis of histological parameters of the leaves, namely long hairs, several among them differed from the typical Festuca rupicola specimens. Each specimen, and the different aged leaves within the specimens have the same structure. Describing the taxon as a separate species is confirmed, besides the unique structure of the leaves, also by deviations in the morphology of the panicle. Identification in the field in vegetative state is helped by the extremely long hairs on the abaxial epidermis of the leaves. The chromosome number of the specimens is 6n = 42. The plant was named after Andras Vojtko, excellent botanist, great researcher of the f...

Dominant plant species in semi-arid environments differ in their effects on litter decomposition. The present study was conducted to investigate the contribution of dominant plant species found in a natural semi-arid grassland to nutrient cycling through their litter decomposition. Aboveground litter (stems and leaves) of Dichanthium ischaemum , Chrysopogon gryllus , Festuca ovina and Trifolium purpureum was placed on the soil for 24 months and chemical characteristics were monitored. The rate of mass loss from stems was significantly lower than that of leaves for all species. The influence of mesh size on the studied parameters for both leaves and stems was similar in most cases for the grass species, Chrysopogon and Festuca (e.g. litter, lignin, TNSC, Energy and Total C, N, K, Ca). Generally, mean decomposition rate ( k ′= k ×10 5 ) had the highest value for Trifolium ( k ′=188), followed by Dichanthium ( k ′=133), Chrysopogon ( k ′=120) and Festuca ( k ′=118). Chrysopogon and Festuca by being the most dominant species in the grassland and having low decomposition rates contribute more organic matter to the soil.

Chromosome numbers for 98 plants ofF. pallens, 19 ofF. psammophila, F. belensis andF. vaginata, and 44 ofF. ovina (originating from Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Slovakia and Latvia) are given. In addition to theF. ovina andF. pallens groups, chromosome counts for the following taxa are also reported:F. alpestris (2n=14) reported for the first time in this work,F. amethystina subsp.amethystina (2n=28),F. brevipila (2n=42),F. cinerea (2n=28),F. rupicola subsp.rupicola (2n=42) andF. versicolor subsp.versicolor (2n=14). InF. pallens, two ploidy levels (2n=2x=14+0-1B, 2n=4x=28+0-1B) as well as two natural triploid plants (2n=21+0-1B), were found. In addition to the fourF. pallens types that have been distinguished in Austria, one new tetraploid type (F. pallens “scabrifolia”) from the Czech Republic and Germany is reported and its taxonomy is discussed. The distributions of the Oberosterreich-Niederosterreich and Pannonisches-HugellandF. pallens types outside of Austria are documented. Only the diploid chromosome number (2n=14) was found inF. psammophila andF. vaginata. Chromosome numbers forF. psammophila subsp.muellerstollii andF. belensis (both 2n=14) were determined here for the first time. Two ploidy levels, 2n=14+0-5B corresponding toF. ovina subsp.ovina and 2n=28 corresponding toF. ovina subsp.guestphalica andF. cf.duernsteinensis were confirmed inF. ovina. Differences in chromosome structure (simple and multiple secondary constrictions) betweenF. pallens as opposed toF. psammophila andF. vaginata are discussed. A complete survey of published chromosome counts for Central European species from theF. ovina andF. pallens groups is included.

Decomposition of 14C-labelled root systems of the grass species Holcus lanatus and Festuca ovina, representative of mesotrophic and oligotrophic situations, respectively, was monitored during 14 months under field conditions in the presence or absence of earthworms (Lumbricus rubellus). During the experiment respiration was monitored, and after 6 weeks and 3 and 14 months the carbon distribution in the soil was determined in various pools of aggregates and organic matter. Hypotheses tested were: (1) roots of oligotrophic plants decompose more slowly than roots of mesotrophic plants, (2) earthworms prefer mesotrophic organic material, and (3) in worm excrements organic material is protected against rapid decomposition. Initially, Holcus root material decomposed faster than that of Festuca, which was probably connected with the higher amount of rhizodeposits in the former. For both species, decomposition was faster in the presence of earthworms, due to enhanced fragmentation and mixing of the material. It appeared, however, that Festuca material fragmented more easily than that of Holcus and it seemed that earthworms had a higher preference for Festuca material. Consequently, more Festuca material was incorporated in macro- and microaggregates, and these aggregates stayed stable for a longer period than those with Holcus material. Although earthworm activity was markedly decreased after 3 months, their effects remained visible throughout the experimental period. It also appeared that after 3 months the processes taking place with the added root material could no longer be distinguished from those involving older organic material. It is concluded that the first two hypotheses could not be confirmed, and that the third remains likely. Furthermore, it is argued that nutrient cycling in an oligotrophic ecosystem will be decelerated more by earthworm activity than in a mesotrophic system. The preference of worms for Festuca and the probably longer protection of this material within aggregates will accelerate species replacement during succession.

Summary 1. To study the potential for complementarity in nitrogen acquisition from different soil depths, we injected an isotope tracer (15NH4Cl) at 5 and 20 cm depths in plant communities containing Achillea millefolium L. and Festuca ovina L. or Phleum pratense L. and Trifolium pratense L. in monocultures and two-species mixtures. 2. In monoculture, Festuca and Phleum took up tracer at 5 and 20 cm depths. In contrast, Achillea and Trifolium monocultures acquired the tracer mainly from 5 cm depth. In two-species mixtures, all four species took up tracer at 5 cm depth. 3. Achillea N acquisition from 20 cm depth increased in mixture with Festuca in comparison to that in monoculture; Festuca N acquisition from 20 cm depth decreased, although not significantly. Trifolium N acquisition remained unchanged when grown in mixture with Phleum. Phleum behaved like Festuca: its N acquisition from 20 cm depth in mixture was reduced in comparison to monoculture. 4. Our data on Festuca and Achillea support spatial partitioning in resource acquisition. This was not evident in Phleum and Trifolium mixture, potentially because Trifolium relied on N2 fixation as N source. 5. These results demonstrate spatial variation among plant species and plant communities in their N acquisition in the field.

Summary 1. The relationship between available biomass and short-term rate of intake (functional response) of herbivores is expected to provide a link between their food supply, and their distribution. 2. The functional response of captive wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus L.) on artificially produced broad-leaved (Lolium perenne L.) and narrow-leaved (Festuca ovina L.) grass swards was quantified. 3. The general prediction that habitat selection varied with biomass, and reflected the potential rate of intake defined by the functional response, was also tested. The main alternative predictions, that both intake rate and habitat selection increased asymptotically with biomass, or were biased towards intermediate habitat standing crop biomasses, were distinguished. 4. There was no relationship between biomass and short-term rate of intake on the narrow-leaved Festuca swards, but on the broad-leaved Lolium sward the short-term rate of intake increased asymptotically with biomass. 5. In a field experiment on Lolium swards, a population of free-living wild rabbits selected the shortest swards with the lowest biomasses, and which provided the lowest potential rates of intake. 6. Results demonstrate that free-living wild rabbits do not select habitats that provide the maximum potential rate of intake, nor did they select foraging habitat with intermediate standing crops. It is suggested that their selection of foraging areas in these grasslands which typify rabbit foraging habitat, is dominated by antipredator considerations rather than purely by rate of intake.

Glaciation and mountain orogeny have generated new ecologic opportunities for plants, favoring an increase in the speciation rate. Moreover, they also act as corridors or barriers for plant lineages and populations. High genetic diversity ensures that species are able to survive and adapt. Gene flow is one of the most important determinants of the genetic diversity and structure of out-crossed species, and it is easily affected by biotic and abiotic factors. The aim of this study was to characterize the genetic diversity and structure of an alpine species, Festuca ovina L., in Xingjiang, China. A total of 100 individuals from 10 populations were analyzed using six amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) primer pairs. A total of 583 clear bands were generated, of which 392 were polymorphic; thus, the percentage of polymorphic bands (PPB) was 67.24%. The total and average genetic diversities were 0.2722 and 0.2006 (0.1686-0.2225), respectively. The unweighted group method with arithmetic mean (UPGMA) tree, principal coordinates analysis (PCoA) and STRUCTURE analyses revealed that these populations or individuals could be clustered into two groups. The analysis of molecular variance analysis (AMOVA) suggested that most of the genetic variance existed within a population, and the genetic differentiation (Fst) among populations was 20.71%. The Shannon differentiation coefficient (G’st) among populations was 0.2350. Limited gene flow (Nm = 0.9571) was detected across all sampling sites. The Fst and Nm presented at different levels under the genetic barriers due to fragmentation. The population genetic diversity was significant relative to environmental factors such as temperature, altitude and precipitation.

1. A plant competition model to analyse the competition among perennial grassland species was developed. It was used to find out whether complex perennial competition processes could be simulated accurately on the basis of ecophysiological principles; what crucial parameters and processes determine succession; and how spatial heterogeneity affects interspecies competition for light and nitrogen. 2. Simulation results were compared with results of a 2-year replacement experiment involving Holcus lanatus, Anthoxanthum odoratum and Festuca ovina. Sensitivity analyses were performed to evaluate the importance of processes and parameters. 3. The model's sensitivity to plant height, specific leaf area and turnover and the large interspecific differences indicated that these were key determinants of competition between species. Festuca's low shoot turnover enabled it to survive the winter better and gave it an advantage in spring; this resulted in an unexpected recovery after winter in the second year. 4. Spatially explicit simulations showed that species patchiness reduced competitive asymmetry, especially under nutrient-poor conditions. 5. The model's ability to simulate complex perennial competition processes as observed in the experiment indicates its potential for analysing vegetation processes related to succession. [KEYWORDS: competitive asymmetry; patchiness; spatial model; succession; turnover Relative growth-rate; productivity; carbon; model; coexistence; habitats; turnover; biomass; grasses; plants]

The influence of growing grass species Holcus lanatus and Festuca ovina on the decomposition of dead roots of H. lanatus, F. rubra and F. ovina and on the nitrogen (N) mineralisation from these residues was studied in a greenhouse experiment. H. lanatus, F. rubra and F. ovina are typical of soils with high, intermediate and low fertility, respectively. Dead roots of high fertility species were expected to decompose faster compared to those of low fertility species and living roots of high fertility species were expected to accelerate the rate of decomposition of dead roots more than low fertility species. To test this hypothesis, decomposition of 15N-labelled roots of these three species was measured after a 6-week incubation period in soil planted with either H. lanatus or F. ovina plants. After this period, the remaining dead root mass, living plant biomass, and the N and 15N distribution among plant, soil and dead roots was measured. The decomposition rate of dead roots from the three plant species was not significantly different. However, H. lanatus dead roots caused a lower N uptake by the growing plants (18.3 mg N) compared to F. ovina (21.5 mg N) and F. rubra (21.9 mg N) dead roots, as a result of a higher N immobilisation by H. lanatus dead roots. The presence of growing plants stimulated dead root decomposition and N mineralisation, the effect of Holcus plants being larger than that of Festuca. H. lanatus plants took up more N and 15N (26.3 mg N and 0.30 mg 15N) than F. ovina plants (14.1 mg N and 0.17 mg 15N). Our results provide evidence that living plant roots stimulate the nitrogen release from plant residues and thereby facilitate their own growth. This effect was stronger for high fertility species than for the low fertility species, because the high fertility species produced more root biomass. On the other hand, dead roots of high fertility species immobilised more N, due to their lower N concentration, resulting in a lower N availability to the growing plants.

Summary 1. Agricultural policy in the Pennine Dales Environmentally Sensitive Area in northern England aims to enhance plant species diversity in agriculturally improved meadows and return them to a ‘traditional’ species composition. The interacting effects of management on vegetation and productivity were tested in a split-split-split plot experiment. Three grazing treatments (autumn grazing with cattle and sheep, spring grazing with sheep, both regimes) were applied between 1990 and 98. Two fertilizer treatments (25 kg ha−1 N plus 12·5 kg ha−1 P2O5 and K2O, no fertilizer); three hay cut date treatments (14 June, 21 July, 1 September) and two seed addition treatments (no seed, seed of many species) were used within the grazing treatments. 2. By 1998, all the main treatments had produced small but significant changes to plant species diversity. A particularly large increase in diversity occurred with the combination of autumn and spring grazing, 21 July hay cut date and seed addition treatments. This change was achieved by an episodic rather than a regular increase in species over time. 3. Rhinanthus minor spread to most plots after its introduction as a constituent of the seed treatment. By 1996 it was particularly abundant in all treatment combinations that included autumn grazing, no mineral fertilizer and a July haycut. Populations of > 40 plants m−2 were associated with the lowest yields of hay. 4. ‘Unimproved-traditional’ plant communities, mainly Festuca ovina–Agrostis capillaris–Galium saxatile grassland, occupied more than 66% of the trial area. Anthoxanthum odoratum–Geranium sylvaticum grasslands were most abundant in 1996, being primarily associated with the combination of autumn and spring grazing, 21 July and 1 September hay cut dates and seed addition treatments, over both fertilizer treatments. 5. Yields of herbage biomass initially declined over time in all treatment combinations. Lowest yields in most years were associated with the autumn and spring grazing, 14 June cutting date and no fertilizer treatments. 6. Management to increase the number of plant species in agriculturally improved mesotrophic grassland requires the joint implementation of appropriate cut date and grazing regimes, probably to provide regeneration niches, and the application of seed to provide species to fill these niches. The small amount of mineral fertilizer used in this experiment had a measurable effect, but was of lesser importance.

Grasslands can be a complex mixture of plant species. A method is described to allow the identification of both roots and shoots of five different grass species, thus permitting greater knowledge about whole plant allocation and competition in mixed pastures. The five species were Lolium perenne, Festuca ovina, Festuca rubra, Poa trivialis and Agrostis capillaris. N-alkanes with odd-numbers of carbon atoms in the chains predominate in plants and in the five grass species studied, concentrations of alkanes of chain length of C29, C31 and C33 were highest. Average concentrations of C27-C33 alkanes in shoots and roots were 187 and 11 mg kg−1, respectively. This wide range of values required considerable modifications to the method of analysis, including expressing concentrations on an organic matter basis and scaling-down the procedure. The n-alkane concentrations in roots are different from those in shoots and therefore values from shoots cannot be used to predict the composition in roots. Using a canonical variate analysis, all five grass species could be separated using concentrations of C26, C31 and C33 values in the roots. The greatest difference occurred between A. capillaris and the others, whereas discrimination was least between the two Festuca species. Defoliation had contrasting effects on the concentration of a few n-alkanes, but not in the n-alkanes used to discriminate between grass species. Alkane analysis shows great potential as a method to quantify the species composition of the root biomass beneath mixed pasture species.

We tested the prediction that the successional replacement of plant species during succession on inland sand dunes results from the effects of an increase in nitrogen mineralization on competitive interactions. The growth and competitive strength o? Festuca ovina and Deschampsia flexuosa on soil substrates with different amounts of soil organic matter or nitrogen supply were measured. Small tillers of Festuca ovina and Deschampsia flexuosa were grown in monocultures and lil-mixtures on soil columns with undisturbed layers of soil organic matter from different successional age. There was (a) no visible soil organic matter, (b) a thin soil organic layer (0.5 cm) and (c) a thicker soil organic layer (6.0 cm) present on the soil columns. The species were also grown on columns with no visible soil organic matter (bare sand) with two different levels of N fertilization to mimic the increased N mineralization in the older successional stages. In monoculture, Festuca produced more biomass on the substrates with a soil organic layer compared to the unfertilized sand substrate. It also produced more biomass on sand substrates with N fertilization. Deschampsia produced more biomass in treatments with a soil organic layer compared to the bare sand treatments, but did not respond to the ammonium-nitrate addition. In competition, Festuca seemed to be the stronger competitor on the unfertilized sand substrate. Festuca was also the better competitor on the N fertilized sand treatments, while on the treatments with a soil organic layer Deschampsia was the winning species. Our results do not support the hypothesis that an increase in N supply is responsible for the replacement of Festuca by Deschampsia that concur with the accumulation of soil organic matter during succession in inland dunes.

A 3-yr field study evaluated the performance of monostands and mixtures of 'Flyer' creeping red fescue (Festuca rubra L. ssp. rubra), 'Jamestown II' Chewings fescue (Festuca rubra L. ssp. commutata Gaud.), 'Bighorn' blue sheep fescue (Festuca ovina L. ssp. glauca) [Lam.] W.DJ. Koch), 'Reliant' hard fescue (Festuca longifolia Thuill.), and 'Rebel II' tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.). The fescues were grown without supplemental irrigation or fertilizer after seedlings emerged. The turf was managed under two mowing regimes: Regime I, mowing as needed to a height of 6.5 cm and Regime II, mowing monthly to a height of 9.0 cm. Spring turf quality was higher with Regime I, whereas, fall quality was generally higher in turf maintained in Regime II. There was no difference in summer or winter quality between mowing regimes in any year. Flyer and Jamestown II monostands generally had quality inferior to mixtures containing these cultivars with other Festuca species. The Rebel II monostand and Rebel II + Flyer mixture had best summer quality in 1993 and 1995 in Regime I. Reliant, Bighorn, and Rebel II monostands and Reliant + Flyer and Rebel II + Flyer mixtures generally exhibited similar summer quality in all years in Regime II. There was no apparent advantage to including Flyer or Jamestown II in mixes with other Festuca species. Mowing Regime II (average seven mowings per year) resulted in a 40% reduction in mowing frequency compared with Regime I (average 13 mowings per year). Smooth crabgrass [Digitaria ischaemum (Schreber) Schreber ex. Muhlenh.] became invasive in Regime I plots in the second year, but crabgrass cover remained low (≤ 2%) in all plots maintained in Regime II in all years.

summary Three perennial grass species, Lolium perenne L., Agrottis capillaris L. and Festuca uvina L., were homogeneously labelled in phytotrons with 14CO2 at two CO2 concentrations (350 and 700μl l−1). Plants were grown under two nitrogen regimes: one with a minor addition of 8 kg N ha−1, the other with an addition of 278 kg N ha−1. Carbon allocation over the different compartments of the plant/soil systems was measured: shoots, roots, rhizosphere soil (soil solution, microbial biomass and soil residue), and bulk soil. Elevated CO., increased total net 14C recovery in all species by 14%, and significantly enhanced the below-ground 14C allocation by 26%, this enhancement was 24%, 39% and 21 % for root, rhizosphere soil and bulk soil, respectively. Within the rhizosphere soil, the 14C amounts in the soil solution (+ 69%) and soil residue (+ 49%,) increased significantly. Total microbial biomass-C in the rhizosphere soil was also increased (15 %) by the elevated CO2 treatment, but only in proportion to the increased root mass. No interactions were observed between the elevated CO2, and N treatments. The N treatment increased total net 14C recovery by more than 300% and 14C was preferentially allocated to the shoots, leading to a significant increase in shoot-to-root ratio. However, N fertilization also increased (+111%) the absolute amount of 14C in soil. The three species behaved differently, but no interactions were observed between CO2 treatment and plant species. These results show that elevated CO2 induces an increased C input into soil for all three grass species at both N levels. However, the highest absolute amounts were found in the soils of the fastest growing species and at the highest N level.

Establishment of cool season grass seedlings in sandy soils is difficult due to lack of sufficient water in the seed zone. Our objective was to quantify the root growth rate of two cultivars of each of six Festuca species in the greenhouse. Festuca cultivars differed in rooting depth, root elongation rates, root length density, root mass density, root area, shoot biomass, leaf area, leaf length, and leaf number. The deepest root system and greatest cumulative root elongation rates were observed for ‘Clemfine’ tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.). Visible root depth within the tube wall was significantly correlated with the root length observed after soil washing. The results of this study show that plants with aggressive root elongation rates had the deepest and best developed root and shoot systems.