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Abnormal fat accumulation with gut microbiota dysbiosis results in hepatic inflammation by upregulating the release of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and inflammatory cytokine. Gochujang, a traditional fermented condiment, has beneficial effects, such as anti-colonic inflammatory effects. However, Gochujang has been controversial because of its high salt content (the Korean Paradox). Thus, the present study aimed to investigate the preventative effects of Gochujang on hepatic inflammation and related gut microbiota through discussing the Korean Paradox. The mice were divided into groups including a normal diet (ND), high-fat diet (HD), HD with salt (SALT), HD with a high percentage of beneficial microbiota Gochujang (HBM), and HD with diverse beneficial microbiota Gochujang (DBM). Gochujang markedly reduced lipid accumulation, hepatic injury, and inflammation response. Furthermore, Gochujang attenuated protein expression involved in the JNK/IκB/NF-κB pathway. Additionally, Gochujang regulated the gut microbiota-derived LPS production and Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio. Gochujang regulated the levels of gut microbiota such as Bacteroides, Muribaculum, Lactobacillus, and Enterorhabdus, which were correlated with hepatic inflammation. Salt did not have foregoing effects, meaning that the salt content in Gochujang did not affect its anti-inflammatory effect. In conclusion, Gochujang showed anti-hepatic inflammation effects via reduced lipid accumulation, hepatic injury, and inflammatory response together with reorganization of gut microbiota dysbiosis regardless of salt content and the difference of micro bacteria composition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soy sauce (SS) is a traditional fermented seasoning. Although fermented foods have diverse health beneficial effects, SS intake has been discouraged because of its high salt level. This study was designed to evaluate the antiobesity outcomes of SS and the potential involvement of salt content in SS by adding a high-salt group. Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly assigned into four groups: normal diet (ND, 10% fat of total kcal), high-fat diet (HD, 60% fat of total kcal), HD with salt water (HDSW, NaCl = 8%), and HD with SS (HDSS, NaCl = 8%). SS significantly decreased HD-induced body weight gain and lipogenic gene expression without affecting food consumption. Moreover, SS also reduced hepatic injury and lipid accumulation, and also improved hyperlipidemia. Furthermore, SS decreased the mRNA levels related to obesity-derived inflammatory responses, while HDSW did not change the levels of those markers. These observations indicate that SS ameliorates obesity in HD-fed obese rats by attenuating dyslipidemia. Moreover, SS might also have an anti-inflammatory effect in HD-induced obesity, which requires further investigation. Most importantly, SS offers these beneficial effects regardless of its high salt content, implying that different dietary salt sources lead to the distinct health outcomes. In conclusion, the findings of this study improve the understanding of the functional effect of SS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]