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Fast and accurate threat detection is critical for animal survival. Reducing perceptual ambiguity by integrating multiple sources of sensory information can enhance perception and reduce response latency. However, studies addressing the link between behavioral correlates of multisensory integration and its underlying neural basis are rare. Fish that detect an urgent threat escape with an explosive behavior known as C-start. The C-start is driven by an identified neural circuit centered on the Mauthner cell, an identified neuron capable of triggering escapes in response to visual and auditory stimuli. Here we demonstrate that goldfish can integrate visual looms and brief auditory stimuli to increase C-start probability. This multisensory enhancement is inversely correlated to the salience of the stimuli, with weaker auditory cues producing a proportionally stronger multisensory effect. We also show that multisensory stimuli reduced C-start response latency, with most escapes locked to the presentation of the auditory cue. We make a direct link between behavioral data and its underlying neural mechanism by reproducing the behavioral data with an integrate-and-fire computational model of the Mauthner cell. This model of the Mauthner cell circuit suggests that excitatory inputs integrated at the soma are key elements in multisensory decision making during fast C-start escapes. This provides a simple but powerful mechanism to enhance threat detection and survival.

Objectives Early-life stress (ELS) increases the risk of metabolic disorders in later life. The present study investigated the ELS effect on pancreatic pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) protein level, α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase (α-KGDH), and aconitase activities as metabolic enzymes in response to young adulthood stress in male rat offspring. Methods Male Wistar rats were divided into six groups: Control, early life stress (Early STR), young adult foot-shock stress (Y. adult F-SH STR), early + young adult foot-shock stress (Early + Y. adult F-SH STR), young adult psychological stress (Y. adult Psy STR) and early + young adult psychological stress (Early + Y. adult Psy STR). Stress was induced by a communication box at 2 weeks of age and young adulthood for five consecutive days. The blood samples were collected in young adult rats, then pancreases were removed to measure its PDH protein level and aconitase and α-KGDH activities. Results In ELS animals, applying foot-shock stress in young adulthood increased PDH protein level, decreased α-KGDH and aconitase activities, and increased plasma glucose, insulin, and corticosterone concentrations. However, exposure to young adulthood psychological stress only decreased α-KGDH and aconitase activities. Conclusions It seems that ELS altered metabolic response to young adulthood stress through changes of Krebs cycle-related enzymes activities, though the type of adulthood stress was determinant.

The domestic fowl has a different social behavior compared to their ancestor, the red junglefowl. To examine whether selection for tameness has affected their intra-specific social behavior, 32 red junglefowl from two selection lines, one selected for increased tameness and one selected for a high fear of humans for ten generations, were kept in a group of two females and two males each and were observed in a semi-natural undisturbed enclosure. Birds selected for a low fear of humans had more social conflict, and the males from this selection crowed more and were more often observed in low social proximity to others. The high-fear birds spent more time close together with the rest of the group and performed more social, non-aggressive pecking. These results are consistent with known differences between ancestral red junglefowl and domesticated laying hens. Our results show that intra-specific social behavior has been affected as a side-effect of selection for increased tameness. This may have interesting implications for the emergence of the domestication syndrome in chickens.

Objective: Patients admitted to mental health services may exhibit behaviours of concern (BOCs) such as aggression, self-harm, absconding and sexual harm. BOCs can lead to restrictive interventions, which have adverse effects on patients, carers and staff. This paper aims to explore the nature and outcome of BOCs within an adult inpatient mental health setting. Methods: A retrospective audit was conducted at a metropolitan inpatient service between 1 August 2016 and 31 July 2017. The frequency, nature and outcomes of BOC episodes were described and thematic analysis was used to summarise BOC antecedents. Results: A BOC was documented for 179 (18.2%) patients who also showed high rates of drug abuse, homelessness and longer admission. Most self-harm and sexual harm events occurred outside of normal business hours. Medications and verbal de-escalation were commonly used interventions. Episodes of deliberate self-harm were likely to result in patient and staff injury or mechanical restraint, whereas aggression was associated with seclusion. Mental state, care engagement, physiological stress and situational stressor were identified as BOC antecedents. Conclusion: Multiple forms of BOCs were experienced with mental state, physical and interpersonal contributors identified. Improving multidisciplinary input into early assessment and treatment of BOC causes is needed to improve safety.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a common neurodegenerative disease that is always accompanied by synaptic loss in the brain. Safflower yellow (SY) is the extract of safflower, a traditional Chinese medicine, which has shown neuroprotective effects in recent studies. However, the mechanism of SY in protecting synapses remains unclear. In this study, we are going to study the mechanism of how SY treats AD in terms of synaptic plasticity. We found, via behavioral experiments, that SY treatment could improve the abilities of learning and memory in APP/PS1 mice. In addition, using Golgi staining and HE staining, we found that SY treatment could reduce the loss of dendritic spines in the pathological condition and could maintain the normal physiological state of the cells in cortex and in hippocampus. In addition, the results of immunofluorescence staining and western blotting showed that SY treatment could significantly increase the expression of synapse-related proteins. Moreover, after being treated with SY, the expression of iNOS (marker of M1 microglia) declined remarkably, and the level of Arginase-1 (marker of M2 microglia) increased significantly. Finally, we found BDNF/TrkB/ERK signaling cascade was activated. These results indicate that SY enhances synaptic plasticity in APP/PS1 mice by regulating microglia activation phenotypes and BDNF/TrkB/ERK signaling pathway.

In high-risk environments with frequent predator encounters, efficient antipredator behavior is key to survival. Parental effects are a powerful mechanism to prepare offspring for coping with such environments, yet clear evidence for adaptive parental effects on offspring antipredator behaviors is missing. Rapid escape reflexes, or “C-start reflexes,” are a key adaptation in fish and amphibians to escape predator strikes. We hypothesized that mothers living in high-risk environments might induce faster C-start reflexes in offspring by modifying egg composition. Here, we show that offspring of the cichlid fish Neolamprologus pulcher developed faster C-start reflexes and were more risk averse if their parents had been exposed to cues of their most dangerous natural predator during egg production. This effect was mediated by differences in egg composition. Eggs of predator-exposed mothers were heavier with higher net protein content, and the resulting offspring were heavier and had lower igf-1 gene expression than control offspring shortly after hatching. Thus, changes in egg composition can relay multiple putative pathways by which mothers can influence adaptive antipredator behaviors such as faster escape reflexes.

Animal personality is defined as behavioral tendencies that are consistent across time and contexts within an individual, but differ across individuals. Studies investigating personality typically examine individuals across short time periods or within a single life stage. Growing evidence suggests that personality may be less stable across life stages, highlighting the need to consider the effects of ontogeny on the expression of consistent behavioral traits. We investigated individual consistency in social and escape behaviors across developmental stages using Siberian hamsters (Phodopus sungorus). To determine whether individuals were consistent in these behaviors as juveniles and across developmental stages, we measured male and female social and escape behaviors twice as juveniles and once as adults. Individuals' social scores were significantly repeatable within the juvenile stage, but not across developmental stages. In contrast, escape scores were highly repeatable across developmental stages, with males' scores being more repeatable than females' scores. Our results support previous findings that personality traits, especially those associated with social behavior, are less stable across development, whereas behaviors associated with stress or coping may represent a more permanent feature of an individual's phenotype. Our results also indicate potential sex differences in long-term repeatability of personality. Considering how ontogeny affects animal personality for males and females can provide insight into the evolution and mechanisms that maintain animal personality.

Defensive behavioral responses are contingent upon threat intensity, proximity, and context of exposure. Based on these factors, we developed a classical conditioning paradigm that elicits clear transitions between conditioned freezing and flight behavior within individual subjects. This model is crucial for the understanding the pathologies involved in anxiety, panic, and post-traumatic stress disorders. Fear- and anxiety-related behaviors significantly contribute to an organism’s survival. However, exaggerated defensive responses to perceived threat are characteristic of various anxiety disorders, which are the most prevalent form of mental illness in the United States. Discovering the neurobiological mechanisms responsible for defensive behaviors will aid in the development of novel therapeutic interventions. Pavlovian fear conditioning is a widely used laboratory paradigm to study fear-related learning and memory. A major limitation of traditional Pavlovian fear conditioning paradigms is that freezing is the only defensive behavior monitored. We recently developed a modified Pavlovian fear conditioning paradigm that allows us to study both conditioned freezing and flight (also known as escape) behavior within individual subjects. This model employs higher intensity footshocks and a greater number of pairings between the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus. Additionally, this conditioned flight paradigm utilizes serial presentation of pure tone and white noise auditory stimuli as the conditioned stimulus. Following conditioning in this paradigm, mice exhibit freezing behavior in response to the tone stimulus, and flight responses during the white noise. This conditioning model can be applied to the study of rapid and flexible transitions between behavioral responses necessary for survival.

Escape from threats has paramount importance for survival. However, it is unknown if a single circuit controls escape vigor from innate and conditioned threats. Cholecystokinin (cck)-expressing cells in the hypothalamic dorsal premammillary nucleus (PMd) are necessary for initiating escape from innate threats via a projection to the dorsolateral periaqueductal gray (dlPAG). We now show that in mice PMd-cck cells are activated during escape, but not other defensive behaviors. PMd-cck ensemble activity can also predict future escape. Furthermore, PMd inhibition decreases escape speed from both innate and conditioned threats. Inhibition of the PMd-cck projection to the dlPAG also decreased escape speed. Intriguingly, PMd-cck and dlPAG activity in mice showed higher mutual information during exposure to innate and conditioned threats. In parallel, human functional magnetic resonance imaging data show that a posterior hypothalamic-to-dlPAG pathway increased activity during exposure to aversive images, indicating that a similar pathway may possibly have a related role in humans. Our data identify the PMd-dlPAG circuit as a central node, controlling escape vigor elicited by both innate and conditioned threats.

Mus musculus and Rattus sp. are considered pest species because they reach high densities in urban areas, crop fields and food storage and productive systems such as breeding farms and orchards. Their control relies mainly on rodenticide application, but the effectiveness of this application is reduced due to behavioural responses and resistance. Novel methods are based on the use of chemical signals as odours that may be attractants, repellents or may reduce the reproductive success of pest species. The aim of this paper is to study the aversive effect of TMT, cat urine and cat body odour on predator-inexperienced Mus musculus and Rattus norvegicus under laboratory conditions. The experimental apparatus comprised three boxes connected by PVC pipes in a linear arrangement. In lateral boxes, odour sources or distilled water were introduced, while animals were placed in the central box at the beginning of the experiment. Rats showed freezing behaviour, reduced visits in the presence of TMT and cat fur. Mice reduced their visits with cat body and cat urine. This study provides evidence of the usefulness of using fear responses as a way to control rodent pests, which must be adapted to the environment and species to be applied.

Theoretical models distinguish between neural responses elicited by distal threats and those evoked by more immediate threats1-3. Specifically, slower 'cognitive' fear responses towards distal threats involve a network of brain regions including the ventral hippocampus (vHPC) and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), while immediate 'reactive' fear responses rely on regions such as the periaqueductal grey4,5. However, it is unclear how anxiety and its neural substrates relate to these distinct defensive survival circuits. We tested whether individual differences in trait anxiety would impact escape behaviour and neural responses to slow and fast attacking predators: conditions designed to evoke cognitive and reactive fear, respectively. Behaviourally, we found that trait anxiety was not related to escape decisions for fast threats, but individuals with higher trait anxiety escaped earlier during slow threats. Functional magnetic resonance imaging showed that when subjects faced slow threats, trait anxiety positively correlated with activity in the vHPC, mPFC, amygdala and insula. Furthermore, the strength of functional coupling between two components of the cognitive circuit-the vHPC and mPFC-was correlated with the degree of trait anxiety. This suggests that anxiety predominantly affects cognitive fear circuits that are involved in volitional strategic escape.

Illuminated emergency exit signs inform building occupants about safe egress routes in emergencies. These exit signs are often found in the presence of other colored signs, which may distract occupants when searching for safe exits. Such distractions can lead to confusing and even harmful outcomes, especially if occupants misinterpret the sign colors, mistaking non-exit signs for exit signs. We studied which colored signs people were most likely to infer were exit signs in a simulated emergency evacuation using virtual reality (VR). Participants were immersed in a virtual room with two doors (left and right), and an illuminated sign with different colored vertical bars above each door. They saw all pairwise combinations of six sign colors across trials. On each trial, a fire alarm sounded, and participants walked to the door that they thought was the exit. We tested two hypotheses: a local exposure hypothesis that color inferences are determined by exit sign colors in the local environment (i.e., red) and a semantic association hypothesis that color inferences are determined by color-concept associations (i.e. green associated with “go” and “safety”). The results challenged the local exposure hypothesis and supported the semantic association hypothesis. Participants predominantly walked toward green signs, even though the exit signs in the local environment—including the building where the experiment took place—were red. However, in a post-experiment survey, most participants reported that exit signs should be red. The results demonstrated a dissociation between the way observers thought they would behave in emergency situations (red = exit) and the way they did behave in simulated emergencies (green = exit). These findings have implications for the design of evacuation systems. Observers, and perhaps designers, do not always anticipate how occupants will behave in emergency situations, which emphasizes the importance of behavioral evaluations for egress safety.

Contains fulltext : 201988.pdf (Publisher’s version ) (Closed access) Suicide is a leading cause of death worldwide. Despite decades of clinical and theoretical accounts that suggest that suicidal thoughts and behaviors are efforts to escape painful emotions, little prior research has examined decision making involved in escaping aversive states. We compared the performance of 85 suicidal participants to 44 nonsuicidal psychiatric patients on a novel reinforcement learning task with choices to make either active (i.e., "go") or passive responses (i.e., "no-go") to either escape or avoid an aversive stimulus. We used a computational cognitive model to isolate decision-making biases. We hypothesized that suicidal participants would exhibit a relatively elevated bias for making active responses to escape an aversive state and would show worse performance when escape required a passive response (i.e., "doing nothing" to escape). Our hypotheses were supported: The computational model revealed that suicidal participants exhibited a higher bias for an active response to escape compared with nonsuicidal psychiatric controls, suggesting that this finding was not just the result of the presence of psychopathology. The bias parameter also accounted for unique variance in predicting group status among several constructs previously related to suicidal thoughts and behaviors. This study provides a new method for testing escape decision making and does so using a computational cognitive model, allowing us to precisely index processes underlying suicidal and related behaviors. Future research examining escape decision making from a computational perspective could help link neural processes or environmental stressors to suicidal thoughts or behaviors. 13 p.

The articulated appendages of arthropods are highly adaptable and potentially multifunctional, used for walking, swimming, feeding, prey capture, or other functions. Webspinners (Order Embioptera) are a paragon in this context. In contrast to other arthropods producing silk, they utilize their front feet for silk production. However, employing the same leg for alternative functions rather than for pure locomotion potentially imposes constraints and compromises. We here present morphological and experimental evidence for a "passive" pressure-induced silk spinning mechanism induced by external mechanical stimuli. Furthermore, we demonstrate that, as a consequence of the conflicting functions for their front feet, webspinners have evolved a unique style of walking that reduces the potentially problematic contact between silk ejectors and the substrate. Here we answer for the first time a long-term question within this enigmatic group of insects-how webspinners can use their front feet to spin their nanoscale silk. This knowledge may open the door for experimental studies on an artificial spinning process and for future utilization in applied fields of robotics or chemistry.

Observations of the flight response of ungulates are commonly used to test behavioral responses to predation risk. In gregarious ungulates with sexual body-size dimorphism such responses are likely to be stronger in situations where individuals have perceptions of less security as well as among more-sensitive individuals, such as female groups or female groups with offspring which are understood to use safety habitats more often than males do. However, little is known about these behaviors in solitary ungulates with little sexual dimorphism. Therefore, we examined the flight response to human presence and the habitat use of Japanese serow (Capricornis crispus), a solitary ungulate with little sexual dimorphism, in relation to its physical and social environments, based on direct observations conducted over approximately four years. Based on a total of 335 sightings, serows took flight less often when in steep terrain, in closed habitat, or in low-visibility seasons, and they selectively used steep-closed habitat. These findings suggest that steep slopes and low-visibility conditions provide the species with greater security, and that serows select safer habitats to decrease predation risk. There were no significant differences in the flight responses and habitat use of solitary males and solitary females; the absence of differences is likely related to the serow's habit of monogamy and its underdeveloped sexual dimorphism. Females with kids more frequently fled than other group types; this difference is thought to be linked to females' priority to secure the survival of their offspring. This result shows the key role of offspring presence in affecting flight response in the serow. Conversely, there were no differences in habitat use between females with kids and other group types; here, the absence of such differences may be associated with intra-sexual territoriality of the serow, since all types of territory holders (including females with kids) need to continuously use the entire home range to maintain a territory.

Environmental stress is a major factor that affects courtship behavior and evolutionary fitness. Although mature virgin females of Drosophila melanogaster usually accept a courting male to mate, they may not mate under stressful conditions. Above the temperature optimal for mating (20-25 °C), copulation success of D. melanogaster declines with increasing temperature although we observed vigorous courtship attempts by males, and no copulation takes place at temperatures over 36 °C. We attempted to identify the sensory pathway for detecting heat threat that drives a female to escape rather than to engage in mating that detects hot temperature and suppresses courtship behavior. We found that the artificial activation of warmth-sensitive neurons ('hot cells') in the antennal arista of females completely abrogates female copulation success even at permissive temperatures below 32 °C. Moreover, mutational loss of the GR28b.d thermoreceptor protein caused females to copulate even at 36 °C. These results indicate that antennal hot cells provide the input channel for detecting the high ambient temperature in the control of virgin female mating under stressful conditions.

Animals respond to visual threats, such as a looming object, with innate defensive behaviors. Here, we report that a specific type of retinal ganglion cell (RGC), the OFF-transient alpha RGC, is critical for the detection of looming objects. We identified Kcnip2 as its molecular marker. The activity of the Kcnip2-expressing RGCs encodes the size of the looming object. Ablation or suppression of these RGCs abolished or severely impaired the escape and freezing behaviors of mice in response to a looming object, while activation of their somas in the retina, or their axon terminals in the superior colliculus, triggered immediate escape behavior. Our results link the activity of a single type of RGC to visually triggered innate defensive behaviors and underscore that ethologically significant visual information is encoded by a labeled line strategy as early as in the retina.

Escaping aversive stimuli is essential for complex organisms, but prolonged exposure to stress leads to maladaptive learning. Stress alters neuronal activity and neuromodulatory signaling in distributed networks, modifying behavior. Here, we describe changes in dopaminergic neuron activity and signaling following aversive learning in a learned helplessness paradigm in mice. A single dose of ketamine suffices to restore escape behavior after aversive learning. Dopaminergic neuron activity in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) systematically varies across learning, correlating with future sensitivity to ketamine treatment. Ketamine’s effects are blocked by chemogenetic inhibition of dopamine signaling. Rather than directly altering the activity of dopaminergic neurons, ketamine appears to rescue dopamine dynamics through actions in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). Chemogenetic activation of Drd1 receptor positive mPFC neurons mimics ketamine’s effects on behavior. Together, our data link neuromodulatory dynamics in mPFC-VTA circuits, aversive learning, and the effects of ketamine., eLife digest Over 264 million people around the world suffer from depression, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). Depression can be debilitating, and while anti-depressant drugs are available, they do not always work. A small molecule drug mainly used for anesthesia called ketamine has recently been shown to ameliorate depressive symptoms within hours, much faster than most anti-depressants. However, the molecular mechanisms behind this effect are still largely unknown. Most anti-depressant drugs work by restoring the normal balance of dopamine and other chemical messengers in the brain. Dopamine is released by a specialized group of cells called dopaminergic neurons, and helps us make decisions by influencing a wide range of other cells in the brain. In a healthy brain, dopamine directs us to rewarding choices, while avoiding actions with negative outcomes. During depression, these dopamine signals are perturbed, resulting in reduced motivation and pleasure. But it remained unclear whether ketamine’s anti-depressant activity also relied on dopamine. To investigate this, Wu et al. used a behavioral study called “learned helplessness” which simulates depression by putting mice in unavoidable stressful situations. Over time the mice learn that their actions do not change the outcome and eventually stop trying to escape from unpleasant situations, even if they are avoidable. The experiment showed that dopaminergic neurons in an area of the brain that is an important part of the “reward and aversion” system became less sensitive to unpleasant stimuli following learned helplessness. When the mice received ketamine, these neurons recovered after a few hours. Individual mice also responded differently to ketamine. The most ‘resilient’, stress-resistant mice, which had distinct patterns of dopamine signaling, also responded most strongly to the drug. Genetic and chemical manipulation of dopaminergic neurons confirmed that ketamine needed intact dopamine signals to work, and revealed that it acted indirectly on dopamine dynamics via another brain region called the medial prefrontal cortex. These results shed new light on how a promising new anti-depressant works. In the future, they may also explain why drugs like ketamine work better for some people than others, ultimately helping clinicians select the most effective treatment for individual patients.

The parabigeminal nucleus (PBG) is the mammalian homologue to the isthmic complex of other vertebrates. Optogenetic stimulation of the PBG induces freezing and escape in mice, a result thought to be caused by a PBG projection to the central nucleus of the amygdala. However, the isthmic complex, including the PBG, has been classically considered satellite nuclei of the Superior Colliculus (SC), which upon stimulation of its medial part also triggers fear and avoidance reactions. As the PBG-SC connectivity is not well characterized, we investigated whether the topology of the PBG projection to the SC could be related to the behavioral consequences of PBG stimulation. To that end, we performed immunohistochemistry, in situ hybridization and neural tracer injections in the SC and PBG in a diurnal rodent, the Octodon degus. We found that all PBG neurons expressed both glutamatergic and cholinergic markers and were distributed in clearly defined anterior (aPBG) and posterior (pPBG) subdivisions. The pPBG is connected reciprocally and topographically to the ipsilateral SC, whereas the aPBG receives afferent axons from the ipsilateral SC and projected exclusively to the contralateral SC. This contralateral projection forms a dense field of terminals that is restricted to the medial SC, in correspondence with the SC representation of the aerial binocular field which, we also found, in O. degus prompted escape reactions upon looming stimulation. Therefore, this specialized topography allows binocular interactions in the SC region controlling responses to aerial predators, suggesting a link between the mechanisms by which the SC and PBG produce defensive behaviors.

Stress has pleiotropic physiologic effects, but the neural circuits linking stress to these responses are not well understood. Here, we describe a novel population of lateral septum neurons expressing neurotensin (LSNts) in mice that are selectively tuned to specific types of stress. LSNts neurons increase their activity during active escape, responding to stress when flight is a viable option, but not when associated with freezing or immobility. Chemogenetic activation of LSNts neurons decreases food intake and body weight, without altering locomotion and anxiety. LSNts neurons co-express several molecules including Glp1r (glucagon-like peptide one receptor) and manipulations of Glp1r signaling in the LS recapitulates the behavioral effects of LSNts activation. Activation of LSNts terminals in the lateral hypothalamus (LH) also decreases food intake. These results show that LSNts neurons are selectively tuned to active escape stress and can reduce food consumption via effects on hypothalamic pathways.

Complex animal behaviors arise from a flexible combination of stereotyped motor primitives. Here we use the escape responses of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans to study how a nervous system dynamically explores the action space. The initiation of the escape responses is predictable: the animal moves away from a potential threat, a mechanical or thermal stimulus. But the motor sequence and the timing that follow are variable. We report that a feedforward excitation between neurons encoding distinct motor states underlies robust motor sequence generation, while mutual inhibition between these neurons controls the flexibility of timing in a motor sequence. Electrical synapses contribute to feedforward coupling whereas glutamatergic synapses contribute to inhibition. We conclude that C. elegans generates robust and flexible motor sequences by combining an excitatory coupling and a winner-take-all operation via mutual inhibition between motor modules.

Animals exhibit innate defense behaviors in response to approaching threats cued by the dynamics of sensory inputs of various modalities. The underlying neural circuits have been mostly studied in the visual system, but remain unclear for other modalities. Here, by utilizing sounds with increasing (vs. decreasing) loudness to mimic looming (vs. receding) objects, we find that looming sounds elicit stereotypical sequential defensive reactions: freezing followed by flight. Both behaviors require the activity of auditory cortex, in particular the sustained type of responses, but are differentially mediated by corticostriatal projections primarily innervating D2 neurons in the tail of the striatum and corticocollicular projections to the superior colliculus, respectively. The behavioral transition from freezing to flight can be attributed to the differential temporal dynamics of the striatal and collicular neurons in their responses to looming sound stimuli. Our results reveal an essential role of the striatum in the innate defense control., Innate defense behaviours in animals in response to approaching threats are mostly studied in response to visual stimuli. Here, the authors show that looming sounds elicit stereotypical sequential defensive reactions that require the auditory cortex, superior colliculus and the striatum.

Lanthanum is a rare-earth element that has been used in various fields including medicine, agriculture and industry. Previously, in utero lanthanum exposure to dams was shown to alter neurobehavior and neurotransmitter levels in rat offspring; however, the effects of postweaning exposure to lanthanum on neurological behavior is still limited. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of postweaning exposure to lanthanum on neurological behavior during early adulthood in rats. Rats were orally exposed to 0, 2, 20, 60 mg/kg BW of lanthanum nitrate from postnatal day (PND) 24 to PND60. Our results indicated that lanthanum treatment significantly decreased body weight and food intake. Morris water maze test results showed that lanthanum significantly decreased escape latency and travel distance. Lanthanum treatment also significantly decreased grip strength, hindlimb strength, and running time & distance in motor activity test. Further results showed that lanthanum treatment significantly decreased plasma neurotransmitter levels of acetylcholine and norepinephrine as well as the number of neurons in the CA1 area of the hippocampus. These results suggest that postweaning exposure to lanthanum have adverse effects on neurobehaviors and the central nervous system, with no-observed-adverse-effect level at 2 mg/kg BW and benchmark dose lower confidence limit at 1.7 mg/kg BW.

Dendritic arborization is highly regulated and requires tight control of dendritic growth, branching, cytoskeletal dynamics, and ion channel expression to ensure proper function. Abnormal dendritic development can result in altered network connectivity, which has been linked to neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). How neuronal growth control programs tune dendritic arborization to ensure function is still not fully understood. UsingDrosophiladendritic arborization (da) neurons as a model, we identified the conserved Ste20-like kinase Tao as a negative regulator of dendritic arborization. We show that Tao kinase activity regulates cytoskeletal dynamics and sensory channel localization required for proper sensory function in both male and female flies. We further provide evidence for functional conservation of Tao kinase, showing that its ASD-linked human ortholog, Tao kinase 2 (Taok2), could replaceDrosophilaTao and rescue dendritic branching, dynamic microtubule alterations, and behavioral defects. However, several ASD-linked Taok2 variants displayed impaired rescue activity, suggesting that Tao/Taok2 mutations can disrupt sensory neuron development and function. Consistently, we show that Tao kinase activity is required in developing and as well as adult stages for maintaining normal dendritic arborization and sensory function to regulate escape and social behavior. Our data suggest an important role for Tao kinase signaling in cytoskeletal organization to maintain proper dendritic arborization and sensory function, providing a strong link between developmental sensory aberrations and behavioral abnormalities relevant for Taok2-dependent ASDs.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENTAutism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are linked to abnormal dendritic arbors. However, the mechanisms of how dendritic arbors develop to promote functional and proper behavior are unclear. We identifiedDrosophilaTao kinase, the ortholog of the ASD risk gene Taok2, as a regulator of dendritic arborization in sensory neurons. We show that Tao kinase regulates cytoskeletal dynamics, controls sensory ion channel localization, and is required to maintain somatosensory functionin vivo. Interestingly, ASD-linked human Taok2 mutations rendered it nonfunctional, whereas its WT form could restore neuronal morphology and function inDrosophilalacking endogenous Tao. Our findings provide evidence for a conserved role of Tao kinase in dendritic development and function of sensory neurons, suggesting that aberrant sensory function might be a common feature of ASDs.

Understanding the adaptive function of conspicuous coloration has been a major focus of evolutionary biology for much of the last century. Although considerable progress has been made in explaining how conspicuous coloration can be used in functions as diverse as sexual and social signaling, startling predators, and advertising toxicity [1], there remain a multitude of species that display conspicuous coloration that cannot be explained by existing theory. Here we detail a new "matador-like" divertive antipredator strategy based on conspicuous coloration in Trinidadian guppies (Poecilia reticulata). Guppies encountering predatory fish rapidly enhance the conspicuousness of their eyes by blackening their irises. By pitting biomimetic robotic guppies against real predatory fish, we show this conspicuous eye coloration diverts attacks away from the guppies' center of mass to their head. To determine the function of this seemingly counterintuitive behavior, we developed a method for simulating escape probabilities when live prey interact with ballistic attacking predators, and find this diversion effect significantly benefits black-eyed guppies because they evade capture by rapidly pivoting away from the predator once it has committed to its attack. Remarkably, this antipredator strategy reverses the commonly observed negative scaling relationship between prey size and evasive ability, with larger fish benefiting most from diverting predators. Taken together, our results introduce a new antipredator divertive strategy that may be widely used by conspicuously colored prey that rely on agility to escape their predators.

Background : Non-consensual Sex (NCS) is a worldwide problem with far reaching effects on the survivors. This study explored the experiences of rape and attempted rape (AR) survivors in a tertiary institution in Nigeria. Methods : In-depth interviews with fourteen survivors of rape and AR were used to explore the context of experience of NCS, its consequences and help-seeking. Interviewees consisted two males and five females for each form of NCS who were identified during the quantitative aspect of the study. Interviews were subjected to content analysis. Results : Mean age of the respondents was 22.3±2.5 years. Context of non-consensual sexual experiences varied with sex. Female survivors reported use of physical violence on them by their perpetrators while males reported verbal threats, nudity, forceful hugging and kissing. Means of escape adopted by survivors of AR varied between the sexes. Female AR survivors used physical force as a means of escape while males employed deception/plea. Perpetrators were majorly acquaintances of the survivors. Consequences of the experiences reported include physical injuries and pregnancy among females and psychological disturbances among males. Majority, both males and females did not report, nor seek help due to shame and did not know appropriate methods of preventing future experience. Conclusion : Although both males and females reported they have experienced rape and AR, the context of the experiences and consequences reported varied between both sexes and most did not know how to prevent future experience. This call for urgent development of gender sensitive sexual violence prevention programmes to address this phenomenon. Keywords : rape, perpetrators, attempted rape, Students, non-consensual sex Funding : The study received grant support from The Gates Institute, John Hopkins University Baltimore, USA through The Centre for Population and Reproductive Health, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Nigeria.

Background Wildlife traps are used in many countries without evaluation of their effect on animal welfare. Trap-capture of wild animals should minimise negative effects on animal welfare, irrespective of whether the animals are trapped for hunting, research, or management purposes. Live-trap capture of wild boar (Sus scrofa) followed by killing inside the trap by gunshot is a recently introduced but disputed hunting method in Sweden. Approval of trap constructions is based on gross necropsy findings of 20 trapped and shot wild boars. For improved animal welfare evaluation, our aim was to study wild boar behaviour during live-trapping in a 16 m2 square corral-style trap. Behavioural assessments were conducted after filming 12 capture events of in total 38 wild boars (five adults, 20 subadults, 13 piglets). Selected behavioural traits were compared with pathological changes (trap-related lesions) found at necropsy of the 20 subadults, to determine if these variables were useful proxies of capture-induced stress in wild boar. Results The wild boars spent less time resting in the evening than in the night and morning. Using Friedman’s ANOVA, there was an overall difference in the time spent foraging. However, we only found a difference between the evening and morning in the Wilcoxon matched pairs test after the Sequential Bonferroni correction, where the wild boars spent more time foraging in the evening than in the morning. Single captured individuals showed more escape behaviours and reacted more strongly to external stimuli than individuals captured in a group. It was more common for animals to charge against the mesh walls of the trap upon human approach compared to upon initial capture when the trap door closed. Trap-related pathological findings due to trauma were documented in 13 of the 20 subadults that were necropsied. Behavioural alterations indicative of capture-induced stress (e.g. charging into the trap walls) were documented in trapped wild boars with no or minor physical injuries (e.g. skin abrasions, subcutaneous haemorrhage). Conclusions Behavioural assessment provided valuable information for determination of capture-induced stress in wild boar when evaluating live-trapping in a corral-style trap, whereas pathological evaluation through necropsy did not fully reflect the animal welfare aspects of live-trapping. We emphasize the inclusion of species-specific behavioural data assessment for evaluation of capture-related stress during live-trapping and for testing of new trap constructions before approval.

Theories on the aetiology of depression in humans are intimately linked to animal research on stressor controllability effects. However, explicit translations of established animal designs are lacking. In two consecutive studies, we developed a translational paradigm to study stressor controllability effects in humans. In the first study, we compared three groups of participants, one exposed to escapable stress, one yoked inescapable stress group, and a control group not exposed to stress. Although group differences indicated successful stress induction, the manipulation failed to differentiate groups according to controllability. In the second study, we employed an improved paradigm and contrasted only an escapable stress group to a yoked inescapable stress group. The final design successfully induced differential effects on self-reported perceived control, exhaustion, helplessness, and behavioural indices of adaptation to stress. The latter were examined in a new escape behaviour test which was modelled after the classic shuttle box animal paradigm. Contrary to the learned helplessness literature, exposure to uncontrollable stress led to more activity and exploration, however, these behaviours were ultimately not adaptive. We discuss the results and possible applications in light of the findings on learning and agency beliefs, inter-individual differences, and interventions aimed at improving resilience to stress-induced mental dysfunction.

Animal survival relies on environmental information gathered by their sensory systems. We found that contrast information of a looming stimulus biases the type of defensive behavior that goldfish (Carassius auratus) perform. Low-contrast looms only evoke subtle alarm reactions whose probability is independent of contrast. As looming contrast increases, the probability of eliciting a fast escape maneuver, the C-start response, increases dramatically. Contrast information also modulates the decision of when to escape. Although response latency is known to depend on looming retinal size, we found that contrast acts as an additional parameter influencing this decision. When presenting progressively higher contrast stimuli, animals need shorter periods of stimulus processing to initiate the response. Our results comply with the notion that the decision to escape is a flexible process initiated with stimulus detection and followed by assessment of the perceived risk posed by the stimulus. Highly disruptive behaviors as the C-start are only observed when a multifactorial threshold that includes stimulus contrast is surpassed. Fil: Otero Coronel, Santiago. Universidad de Buenos Aires; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Oficina de Coordinación Administrativa Ciudad Universitaria. Instituto de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Neurociencias. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Instituto de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Neurociencias; Argentina Fil: Martorell, Nicolás. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Oficina de Coordinación Administrativa Ciudad Universitaria. Instituto de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Neurociencias. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Instituto de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Neurociencias; Argentina Fil: Berón de Astrada, Martín. Universidad de Buenos Aires; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Oficina de Coordinación Administrativa Ciudad Universitaria. Instituto de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Neurociencias. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Instituto de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Neurociencias; Argentina Fil: Medan, Violeta. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Oficina de Coordinación Administrativa Ciudad Universitaria. Instituto de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Neurociencias. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Instituto de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Neurociencias; Argentina

The popularity of using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) to survey colonial waterbirds has increased in the past decade, but disturbance associated with this bourgeoning technology requires further study. Disturbance was investigated by conducting aerial surveys with a consumer-grade quadcopter (DJI Phantom 3), while concurrently recording behavioural reactions on video. Surveys of mixed-species waterbird colonies (1-6 species per colony) were flown in horizontal transects at heights of 122, 91, 61, and 46 m, which is a typical range for collecting aerial imagery and producing high-resolution mosaicked orthophotos of nesting bird sites. An upper limit of 122 m was used due to local regulations prohibiting higher-altitude flights without federal authorization. Behavioural reactions were tallied every minute and a disturbance score was calculated for each sampling period. When compared to control periods, we found no evidence that colony-wide escape (i.e., flight) behaviour increased during drone flights, at any altitude flown. However, disturbance score increased significantly by 53% for surveys at 46 m. Some species were more sensitive to surveys than others. Laughing Gulls, in particular, exhibited a significant (125%) increase in escape behaviour for surveys at 91 m. Our results indicate when used in a capacity to gather high-resolution imagery for estimating breeding pairs, UAV surveys affected some species more than others, but severe reactions did not appear to increase for mixed-species colonies as a whole. Further study on safe operating thresholds is essential, especially at local and regional scales.

Maternal sleep deprivation (MSD) has been suggested to be associated with increased frequency of neurodevelopmental disorders in offspring in both humans and animal models. However, the underlying cellular and molecular mechanism is still unclear. We have recently reported that MSD at different stages of pregnancy impairs the emotional and cognitive functions, and suppresses hippocampal CA1 long-term potentiation (LTP) in the offspring rats. Here, we report that the MSD induced LTP impairment at the CA1 hippocampus of the offspring rats is associated with increased long-term depression (LTD) and reduced expression of postsynaptic GluA2-containing α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-isoxazole-4-propionic acid receptors (AMPARs). Importantly, we found that inhibition of AMPAR endocytosis by a synthetic peptide Tat-GluA23Y (3 μmol/kg, i.p.) not only increased level of AMPARs and reduced LTD, but also restored LTP. Moreover, treatment with Tat-GluA23Y peptide markedly alleviated the MSD-induced impairments of spatial learning and memory; and decreased depressive- and anxiety-like behaviors in the offspring. Together, our findings suggest that the MSD-induced postsynaptic AMPAR endocytosis causally contributes to the impairments of hippocampal synaptic plasticity, thereby disrupting the emotional and cognitive functions in the offspring.

Lower flight reaction is closely related to higher production in cattle, but the genetic basis of lower flight reaction is not clearly understood. Here, we sampled a total of 45 Brahman cattles and 166 Yunling cattles with flight distance (FD), and 73 Brahman cattles and 288 Yunling cattles with crush score (CS) and flight speed (FS), whereas there were 45 Brahman cattles and 161 Yunling cattles with all three traits. The FD, CS and FS in Brahman cattle were significantly lower than those in Yunling cattle. The flight reaction traits had negative correlation with conformational traits (e.g., body weight, withers height and body length). Based on SNPs derived from a subset of 162 whole genomes (25 Brahman genomes and 100 Yunling genomes with FD, 30 Brahman and 131 Yunling genomes with CS and FS), genome-wide association study with mixed linear model was performed to test potential associations between flight reaction traits and genomic variants. We identified five, two and two genomic loci suggestively associated with FD, CS and FS, respectively. Five out of five candidate genes for FD (LOC789753, LRP6, CTIF, SLC9A9 and ZEB1) were reported to be related to Alzheimer's disease representing cognitive impairment in human, which was consistent with the finding that cognitive-behavioural intervention decreased the FD of cows to human. In CS, a very strong association locus was assigned to CDH8, a cadherin involved in synaptic adhesion, axon outgrowth and guidance, whose deletion was associated with autism spectrum disorder. In FS, a very strong association locus was assigned to GABRG2, a gamma-aminobutyric acid (a major inhibitory neurotransmitter in brain) receptor, whose polymorphisms were associated with suicidal behaviour in schizophrenia patients. Our findings will provide targets for molecular-marker selection and genetic manipulation of cattle improvement to meeting the growing demand for lower flight reaction to human.

Species susceptible to inbreeding depression are hypothesized to combat this problem through a number of different mechanisms, including kin recognition. For species with kin recognition, it is unknown if filial recognition is innate or due to prior juvenile experience with siblings. Here, we first test for the presence of kin recognition, and then test these two hypotheses for the development of filial recognition, in the butterfly Bicyclus anynana, a species that suffers from inbreeding depression when forcibly inbred but recovers within a few generations when allowed to breed freely. We evaluate whether the rapid recovery from inbreeding depression is associated with either innate or learned filial recognition. First, we determined whether females innately prefer unrelated males over sibling males using females reared in isolation and then given a choice between an unrelated and a sibling male. Then, we determined if females raised with siblings learned to detect and avoid mating with siblings as adults when provided a choice between an unrelated male and a sibling male. Finally, we determined if females raised with siblings could learn to detect and avoid mating with familiar siblings when given a choice between familiar and unfamiliar siblings. We found that females mated randomly in all three choice combinations. Observed male behavior also did not influence female mating outcome. Our results suggest that adult females do not innately avoid or learn to avoid siblings during mate selection, and that filial detection may not be as critical to reproductive fitness in B. anynana as previously thought.

Predator-induced plasticity has been in the focus of evolutionary ecological research in the last decades, but the consequences of temporal variation in the presence of cues predicting offspring environment have remained controversial. This is partly due to the fact that the role of early environmental effects has scarcely been scrutinized in this context while also controlling for potential maternal effects. In this study, we investigated how past environmental conditions, that is different combinations of risky or safe adult (prenatal) and oviposition (early post-natal) environments, affected offspring's plastic responses in hatching time and locomotor activity to predation risk during development in the smooth newt (Lissotriton vulgaris). We found that females did not adjust their reproductive investment to the perceived level of risk in the adult environment, and this prenatal environment had generally negligible effect on offspring phenotype. However, when predator cues were absent during oviposition, larvae raised in the presence of predator cues delayed their hatching and exhibited a decreased activity compared to control larvae developing without predator cues, which responses are advantageous when predators pose a threat to hatched larvae. In the presence of predator cues during oviposition, the difference in hatching time persisted, but the difference in general locomotor activity disappeared between risk-exposed and control larvae. Our findings provide clear experimental evidence that fine-scale temporal variation in a predictive cue during and after egg-laying interactively affects offspring phenotype, and highlight the importance of the early post-natal environment, which may exert a substantial influence on progeny's phenotype also under natural conditions.

Flight initiation distance (FID), the distance at which an organism flees from an approaching threat, is an ecological metric of cost-benefit functions of escape decisions. We adapted the FID paradigm to investigate how fast or slow attacking ‘virtual predators’ constrain escape decisions. We show that rapid escape decisions rely on ‘reactive fear’ circuits in the periaqueductal gray and midcingulate cortex (MCC), while protracted escape decisions, defined by larger buffer zones, were associated with ‘cognitive fear’ circuits which include posterior cingulate cortex, hippocampus and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, circuits implicated in strategic avoidance and behavioral flexibility. Using a Bayesian Decision Model, we further show that optimization of escape decisions under rapid flight were localized to the MCC, a region involved in adaptive motor control, while the hippocampus is implicated in optimizing decisions that update and control slower escape initiation. These results demonstrate an unexplored link between defensive survival circuits and their role in adaptive escape decisions.SignificanceHumans, like other animals, have evolved a set of circuits whose primary function is survival. In the case of predation, these circuits include ‘reactive fear’ circuits involved in fast and immediate escape decisions and ‘cognitive fear’ circuits that are involved in the conscious feeling of threat as well as slow strategic escape. Using neuroimaging combined with computational modeling, we support this differentiation of fear circuits by showing that fast escape decisions are elicited by the periaqueductal gray and MCC, regions involved in reactive flight. Conversely, slower escape decisions rely on the hippocampus, posterior cingulate cortex and prefrontal cortex, a circuit implicated in behavioral flexibility. These results support the role of the defensive survival circuitry in escape decisions and a separation of fear into reactive and cognitive circuits.

BACKGROUND Effect of Heteropterys aphrodisiaca (dog-node) on anxiety and function of adult female wistar mice. The project is an experiment with the use of H. aphrodisiac root extract, in order to observe the frequency of sexual exposure of females exposed to the extract, quantify the effect of the extract on the concentration of total testosterone and observe the anxiety levels of the animals exposed. Results will be measured with the laboratory testosterone test and LCE and CA tests. METHODS In preparation of the extract, the root was oven dried at 40°C and diluted in alcohol extract (100g of root for 1 liter of alcohol) and lyophilized. 40 adult female mice were enrolled, separated in control group (placebo) and treatment group (50 mg/kg/day) for 15, 30, 45 and 60 days. At each period, hormonal testosterone and anxiety levels by the Elevated-Cross Labyrinth (ECL) tests and Open Camp (CA) were measured in 10 animals that were later euthanized (SBNeC). RESULTS The results showed an improvement in the decrease of anxiety, as shown in the variables of number of open arm entries, time on the same side of the field, less avoidance and leakage. However, it appears that the time of exposure to the extract does not result in increased benefit, with possible decline of effect after 45 days of use. CONCLUSION With this performed experiment with the "no-de-cachorro" extract, it was possible to understand a little more how this root can act in relation to anxiety, as predicted by the pharmacology that validates the animal models; anxiolytic components decrease anxiety-related behaviors, as shown in the variables of entry numbers in the open arm, time on the same side of the field, less avoidance and escape. However, it seems that the time of exposure to the extract does not modify the performance in the tests, observing until an apparent exhaustion of the anxiolytic action, which evidences the need for more specific studies on the possible effects of the extract.

In 1990, M. Main and J. Solomon introduced the procedures for coding a new “disorganized” infant attachment classification for the Ainsworth Strange Situation procedure (M.D.S. Ainsworth, M. Blehar, E. Waters, & S. Wall, 1978). This classification has received a high degree of interest, both from researchers and from child welfare and clinical practitioners. Disorganized attachment has primarily been understood through the lens of E. Hesse and M. Main's concept of “fright without solution,” taken to mean that an infant experiences a conflict between a desire to approach and flee from a frightening parent when confronted by the Strange Situation. Yet, looking back, it can be observed that the way Hesse and Main's texts were formulated and read has generated confusion; there have been repeated calls in recent years for renewed theory and clarification about the relationship between disorganization and fear. Responding to these calls, this article revisits the texts that introduced the idea of fright without solution, clarifying their claims through articulating more precisely the different meanings of the term fear. This clarified account will then be applied to consideration of pathways to infant disorganized behaviors.

Empathy is fundamental to human relations, but its neural substrates remain largely unknown. Here we characterize the involvement of oxytocin in the capacity of mice to display emotional state-matching, an empathy-like behavior. When exposed to a familiar conspecific demonstrator in distress, an observer mouse becomes fearful, as indicated by a tendency to freeze and subsequent efforts to escape. Both intranasal oxytocin administration and chemogenetic stimulation of oxytocin neurons render males sensitive to the distress of an unfamiliar mouse. Acute intranasal oxytocin penetrates the brain and enhances cellular activity within the anterior cingulate cortex, whereas chronic administration produces long-term facilitation of observational fear and downregulates oxytocin receptor expression in the amygdala. None of these manipulations affect fear acquired as a result of direct experience with the stressor. Hence, these results implicate oxytocin in observational fear in mice (rather than fear itself) and provide new avenues for examining the neural substrates of empathy., Oxytocin modulates social behaviours in mammals. Here the authors demonstrate that observational fear, a measure of empathy-like behaviour in rodents, is modulated by oxytocin.

Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) signaling plays a major role in vertebrate development, from regulation of proliferation to the patterning of various organs. In amniotes, Shh affects dorsoventral patterning in the inner ear but affects anteroposterior patterning in teleosts. Currently, it remains unknown the function of Shh in inner ear development in terms of how morphogenesis changes in the sarcopterygian/tetrapod lineage coincide with the evolution of limbs and novel auditory organs in the ear. In this study we used the tetrapod, Xenopus laevis, to test how increasing concentrations of the Shh signal pathway antagonist, Vismodegib, affects ear development. Vismodegib treatment dose dependently alters the development of the ear, hypaxial muscle, and indirectly the Mauthner cell through its interaction with the inner ear afferents. Together, these phenotypes have an effect on escape response. The altered Mauthner cell likely contributes to the increased time to respond to a stimulus. In addition, the increased hypaxial muscle in the trunk likely contributes to the subtle change in animal C-start flexion angle. In the ear, Vismodegib treatment results in decreasing segregation between the gravistatic sensory epithelia as the concentration of Vismodegib increases. Furthermore, at higher doses, there is a loss of the horizontal canal but no enantiomorphic transformation, as in bony fish lacking Shh. Like in amniotes, Shh signaling in frogs affects dorsoventral patterning in the ear, suggesting that auditory sensory evolution in sarcopterygians/tetrapods evolved with a shift of Shh axis specification of the ear. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Developmental exposure to melamine induces long-term effects on brain and behavior in male rodents. To examine whether this prenatal event damages cognitive function in female offspring, we evaluated the behavioral effects and further attempted to investigate synaptic function. Prenatal melamine exposure (PME) was given by oral treatment to pregnant females through the whole gestational days with 400mg/day/kg bodyweight. On postnatal day (PD) 36, female offspring were assessed for spatial cognition in the Morris Water Maze (MWM) test. Simultaneously, the alterations in hippocampal synaptic plasticity in Schaffer collaterals-CA1 pathway in vivo were measured. The results of behavioral test showed that PME lead serious deficits of memory and re-acquisition abilities. PME depressed depotentiation in the hippocampal CA1 area of the PME group, but no alteration in LTP. Furthermore, variations of post-tetanic potentiation (PTP) and paired-pulse facilitation (PPF) were also observed in this pathway. This finding indicated that the PME affected spatial cognition in adolescent females, and the impairment of hippocampal synaptic functions may partly play a significant role in these effects.

Bacterial intoxication associated with inflammatory conditions during development can impair brain functions, in particular evolutionarily novel forms of memory, such as explicit learning. Little is known about the dangers of early-life inflammation on more basic forms of learning, for example, the acquisition of motor escape abilities, which are generally better preserved under pathological conditions. To address this limitation in knowledge, an inflammatory response was elicited in Wistar pups by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) injections (25 μg/kg) on postnatal days P15, P18 and P21. The acquisition of escape behaviour was tested from P77 by active avoidance footshock model and water maze. Open-field behaviour and blood corticosterone levels were also measured. Rat brain tissue was collected from pups 2 h post-injection and from adult rats which either underwent escape training on P77–P81 or remained untrained. mRNA levels of developmental brain plasticity factors MMP-9 and TIMP-1 were investigated in the medial prefrontal cortex and ventral/dorsal hippocampus. LPS-challenged rats displayed moderately deficient escape responses in both memory tests, increased freezing behaviour and, surprisingly, reduced blood cortisol levels. Mmp9 and Timp1, and their ratio to one another, were differentially altered in pups versus adult untrained rats but remained unchanged overall in rats trained in either learning task. Together, our data indicate that systemic pro-inflammatory response during early postnatal development has long-lasting effects, including on the acquisition of motor escape abilities and plasticity factor expression, into adulthood. Our data suggest that altered stress response could possibly mediate these deviations and repeated training might generate positive effects on plasticity under the employed conditions. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s12640-017-9720-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

This research tested a model that integrates risk factors among non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) and eating disorder (ED) behaviors with the aim of elucidating possible shared and unique mechanisms underlying both behaviors. Emotional distress, limited access to emotion regulation (ER) strategies, experiential avoidance, and NSSI/ED frequency were examined in a sample of 230 female undergraduates. Structural equation modeling indicated that limited access to ER strategies and avoidance mediated relationship between emotional distress and avoidance, which in turn was associated with NSSI and ED behaviors. Results suggest NSSI and ED behaviors may serve similar emotion regulation functions, and specifically highlight the role of experiential avoidance in these behaviors.

Naturalistic escape requires versatile context-specific flight with rapid evaluation of local geometry to identify and use efficient escape routes. It is unknown how spatial navigation and escape circuits are recruited to produce context-specific flight. Using mice, we show that activity in cholecystokinin-expressing hypothalamic dorsal premammillary nucleus (PMd-cck) cells is sufficient and necessary for context-specific escape that adapts to each environment's layout. In contrast, numerous other nuclei implicated in flight only induced stereotyped panic-related escape. We reasoned the dorsal premammillary nucleus (PMd) can induce context-specific escape because it projects to escape and spatial navigation nuclei. Indeed, activity in PMd-cck projections to thalamic spatial navigation circuits is necessary for context-specific escape induced by moderate threats but not panic-related stereotyped escape caused by perceived asphyxiation. Conversely, the PMd projection to the escape-inducing dorsal periaqueductal gray projection is necessary for all tested escapes. Thus, PMd-cck cells control versatile flight, engaging spatial navigation and escape circuits.

Epidemiological investigations have shown that aluminium (Al) is an important neurotoxicant which can be absorbed by organisms via various routes. Previous studies have confirmed that exposure to Al could cause neurodegenerative diseases, decline CREB phosphorylation and then down-regulate the transcription and protein expression of its target genes including BDNF. However, recent studies revealed that CREB activation alone was far from enough to activate the expression of long-term memory (LTM)-related genes; there might be other regulatory factors involved in this process. Several studies showed that TORC1 might be involved in regulating the transcription of downstream target genes as well. Also, TORC1 could be mediated by SIRT1 during the formation of LTM. However, the role of CREB regulating system in Al-induced LTM impairment was still not utterly elucidated till now. This study was designed to establish the rat model of subchronic Al exposure to observe the neuroethology, regulatory factor levels and molecular biological alterations in hippocampal cells. The results showed that, with the increasing AlCl3 dose, blood Al content increased gradually; morphology of the hippocampus and neuronal ultrastructure were aberrant; in the Morris water maze test, the escape latency and distance travelled became longer, swimming traces turned more complicated in the place navigation test; intracellular Ca2+ , cAMP levels declined significantly in AlCl3 -treated rats, followed by abated nuclear translocation of TORC1 and decreased SIRT1, TORC1 and pCREB levels. These results indicate that SIRT1 and TORC1 might play an important mediating role in Al-induced LTM impairment.

Hanley, Jin, Vanselow, and Hanratty (2014) described a functional analysis (FA) format that relied on a synthesis of multiple contingencies described by caregivers during open-ended interviews. These interview-informed synthesized contingency analyses (IISCA) provided effective baselines from which to develop socially validated treatments, but the synthesis precluded a precise understanding of individual contingencies influencing problem behavior. We conducted IISCAs and standard FAs (Iwata, Dorsey, Slifer, Bauman, & Richman, 1982/1994) for nine children with autism to evaluate the likelihood of differentiation given a number of synthesized versus isolated variables. The IISCA was differentiated for all. The standard FA was differentiated for four; this number increased to six when we included precursors in the standard FA. We then compared treatments based on sets of differentiated analyses for four children. Treatment based on the IISCA was effective for all four; treatments based on the standard FA were effective for two. The role of synthesis in analysis is discussed.