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Background Pirfenidone is an antifibrotic agent approved for the treatment of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). The drug is available for Polish patients with IPF since 2017. The PolExPIR study aimed to describe the real-world data (RWD) on the Polish experience of pirfenidone therapy in IPF with respect to safety and efficacy profiles. Methods This was a multicentre, retrospective, observational study collecting clinical data of patients with IPF receiving pirfenidone from January 2017 to September 2019 across 10 specialized pulmonary centres in Poland. Data collection included baseline characteristics, pulmonary function tests (PFTs) results and six-minute walk test (6MWT). Longitudinal data on PFTs, 6MWT, adverse drug reactions (ADRs), treatment persistence, and survival were also collected up to 24 months post-inclusion. Results A total of 307 patients receiving pirfenidone were identified for analysis. The mean age was 68.83 (8.13) years and 77% were males. The median time from the first symptoms to IPF diagnosis was 15.5 (9.75–30) months and from diagnosis to start of pirfenidone treatment was 6 (2–23) months. Patients were followed on treatment for a median of 17 (12–22.75) months. Seventy-four patients (24.1%) required dose adjustments and 35 (11.4%) were chronically treated with different than the full recommended dose. A total of 141 patients (45.92%) discontinued therapy due to different reasons including ADRs (16.61%), death (8.79%), disease progression (6.51%), patient’s own request (5.54%), neoplastic disease (3.91%) and lung transplantation (0.33%). Over up to 24 months of follow-up, the pulmonary function remained largely stable. The median annual decline in forced vital capacity (FVC) during the first year of pirfenidone therapy was −20 ml (−200–100) and during the second year was −120 ml (−340–30). Over a study period, 33 patients (10.75%) died. Conclusions The PolExPIR study is a source of longitudinal RWD on pirfenidone therapy in the Polish cohort of patients with IPF supporting its long-term acceptable safety and efficacy profiles and reinforce findings from the previous randomised clinical trials and observational studies.

BACKGROUND Genome-wide and allelic association studies have shown the contribution of CHRNA5-A3-B4 nicotinic receptor subunit gene cluster within chromosome 15 to nicotine dependence (ND). While an association between several single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) at that locus and smoking quantity (cigarettes per day; CPD) has been well recognized, there are some inconsistencies in demonstrating the influence of these SNPs on other ND phenotypes. This uncertainty motivated us to examine the association of 3 selected SNPs (CHRNA3 rs1051730, rs6495308, and CHRNA5 rs55853898) with ND in an isolated population of Kashubians from Poland. MATERIAL AND METHODS The study sample consisted of 788 current daily smokers. ND was assessed by CPD, the Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence (FTND), its brief version - Heavy Smoking Index (HSI), and time to first cigarette after waking (TTF). The correlation between studied SNPs and dichotomized values of ND measures was assessed in the regression analysis. Bonferroni corrected p-value of 0.017 was set for a type 1 error. RESULTS We found a robust association between risk allele A of rs1051730 and CPD >10 (odds ratio (OR)=1.77, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.20-2.59, p=0.004), and a weak association, which did not survive correction for multiple testing, with FTND ³4. No associations between studied SNPs and HSI or TTF were demonstrated. CONCLUSIONS Our findings confirm that rs1051730 influences ND phenotype, as defined by CPD.

Tobacco smoking is the single most important modifiable factor in increased morbidity and premature mortality. Numerous factors—including genetics, personality, and environment—affect the development and persistence of tobacco addiction, and knowledge regarding these factors could improve smoking cessation rates. This study compared personality traits between never, former, and current smokers, using the Five-Factor Model of Personality in a country with a turbulent smoking reduction process.: In this cross-sectional study, 909 Polish adults completed the Revised Neuroticism-Extraversion-Openness Personality Inventory. Our results showed that current smokers’ scores for extraversion, one of the five global dimensions of personality, were higher relative to never smokers. Neuroticism, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness did not differ significantly according to smoking status. Facet analysis, which described each dimension in detail, showed that current smokers’ activity and excitement seeking (facets of extraversion) scores were higher relative to those of never and former smokers. In turn, current smokers’ dutifulness and deliberation (facets of conscientiousness) scores were lower than those found in former and never smokers. Never smokers scored the highest in self-consciousness (a facet of neuroticism) and compliance (a component of agreeableness). The study conducted among Polish individuals showed variation in personality traits according to their smoking status; however, this variation differed from that reported in countries in which efforts to reduce smoking had begun earlier relative to Poland. Knowledge regarding personality traits could be useful in designing smoking prevention and cessation programs tailored to individuals’ needs.

Smoking is still considered to be mainly a male problem. However, it is estimated that there are approximately 250 million women worldwide who smoke cigarettes and millions more women who use smokeless tobacco products. This article addresses the many facets of tobacco use among women. The aim of the paper is to increase recognition among clinicians and researchers of the specific characteristics of female tobacco use. Together with providing epidemiological data on the distribution of tobacco use among women and data from population-based analyses on sociocultural factors that influence it, the article presents tobacco use during pregnancy as a particularly important public health problem. Further, the article points out sex-related differences (ie, physiological, psychological, or behavioral) between male and female tobacco use. A special focus is on the important role of ovarian hormones. Adverse effects of tobacco use to women and their children as well as tobacco-related morbidities and comorbidities are presented, and women’s greater susceptibility to tobacco constituents as compared to men is stressed. Awareness of these differences can contribute to improvement of the effectiveness of smoking cessation programs addressed both to the specific female population and to an individual smoking woman.

Background: Insect venom allergy (IVA) is present in 1–3% of the population. A group of patients with high specific IgE do not react to stings. In contrast, a proportion of patients with IVA have low specific IgE levels. These findings indicate that factors other than specific IgE may also be involved in IVA. Dysfunction of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) has been described as a potential factor in IVA. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of angiotensin AGT p.M235T and angiotensin-converting enzyme ACE I/D, I/I, D/D gene polymorphisms in patients with IVA and to relate the presence of these gene variants to the course of IVA and the safety of treatment. Methods: A total of 107 patients with IVA and 113 controls were studied. AGT p.M235T and ACE (ID, I/I, D/D) gene polymorphisms were examined, and angiotensin I levels were measured by immunoassay. Results: The frequency of the AGT MM M235T variant was significantly higher in IVA patients (29.9%) than in controls (17%, p = 0.02). The presence of the MM M235T genotype increased the risk of grade IV reactions (odds ratio = 2.5 and 95% confidence interval 1.04–6.08). There were no differences in the prevalence of the ACE I/D polymorphism and angiotensin I levels between control groups and patients with different grades of anaphylactic reactions or patients with side effects of venom immunotherapy. Conclusion: The AGT M235T MM variant may be responsible for severe anaphylactic reactions to insect venom allergens in some patients.

Background: The safety profile of venom immunotherapy is a relevant issue. We evaluated the frequency of severe adverse events (SAE), associated risk factors, retrospective comparison of pretreatment protocols including solely H1 receptor blockers and a combination of H1 and H2 receptor blockers during rush Hymenoptera venom immunotherapy. Methods: The study group comprised 118 patients. The treatment was initiated according to a 5-day rush protocol with the use of standardized venom allergens of either wasp or honeybee. Results: During the rush induction, side effects occurred in 18 patients (15.2%), whereas SAE were present in 7 patients (5.9%). Twelve out of 18 (66.6%) developed anaphylactic reactions on the fourth day of the rush protocol, with the majority of cases at a dose of 40 or 60 µg of the venom extract (p = 0.001). The frequency of SAE was also significantly higher on the fourth day than thereafter (p = 0.0001) as well as in patients allergic to bee venom (p = 0.049). All systemic side effects were more frequent in women (p = 0.0065). However, this relation was not true when SAE were consider (p = 0.11). A higher percentage of SAE was observed in the subjects pretreated with both H1 and H2 receptor antagonists than in those pretreated with H1 blocker only (8.8 vs. 4.1%); however, the difference was not significant. Conclusions: Considerable severity of allergic adverse events requires particular attention to patients allergic to bee venom and during rush phase, especially when rapidly increasing doses are administered. Pretreatment with H2 blockers is debatable and warrants further investigation.

Background Tobacco use is a complex, multistage behaviour. The particular stages of this behaviour, including nicotine dependence (ND), are influenced by both genetics and the environment. Surveys on factors influencing tobacco use and ND, conducted in ethnically homogenous populations, can provide results less influenced by genetic and cultural heterogeneity. We aimed to assess ND in a sample of current smokers, derived from the geographically and culturally isolated population of Kashubians from North Poland, and evaluate its potential association with age, sex, and self-reported comorbidities. In addition, we attempted to replicate - for the first time in this population - previous findings on the association between ND and several variants within the CHRNA5A3-A5-B4 nicotine receptor subunit gene cluster. Methods The study sample consisted of 969 unrelated subjects who were all current smokers. ND was evaluated using four measures: the Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence (FTND), the Heavy Smoking Index (HSI), the number of cigarettes per day (CPD) and the time to first cigarette after waking (TTF). All subjects underwent genotyping for CHRNA5 rs16969968, CHRNA3 rs578776, and CHRNB4 rs12914008 variants. Multivariate regression analysis was used for the assessment of the studied correlations. A significance level of 0.05 with the Bonferroni correction for multiple testing was set for a type 1 error in the analyses. Results The mean CPD, FTND and HSI scores in the study sample were 17.3 ± 7.7, 3.9 ± 2.3 and 2.6 ± 1.5, respectively. No association between ND defined by FTND, HSI or TTF and age was found. In turn, heavy smoking was significantly associated with older age (odds ratio (OR) = 1.72, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.14-2.59, p = 0.009), and men were more likely than women to be heavy smokers (OR = 1.70, 95% CI: 1.09-2.65, p = 0.018). Chronic comorbidity did not significantly influence ND. An analysis of association of studied polymorphisms with ND showed a borderline association of rs16969968 with CPD (OR = 1.63, 95% CI: 1.09–2.45, p = 0.017). Conclusion Our study showed a low to moderate level of ND in the Kashubians, influenced by age, sex, as well as the CHRNA5 rs16969968 variant.

Tobacco smoking continues to be a leading cause of disease and mortality. Recent research has confirmed the important role of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) gene cluster on chromosome 15q 24-25 in nicotine dependence and smoking. In this study we tested the association of smoking initiation, age at onset of daily smoking, and heaviness of smoking with five single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within the CHRNA5-CHRNA3-CHRNB4 cluster. The group of 389 adult subjects of European ancestry from the north of Poland, including 212 ever (140 current and 72 former) and 177 never smokers with mean age 49.26, was genotyped for rs16969868, rs1051730, rs588765, rs6495308, and rs578776 polymorphisms. Distributions of genotypes for rs16969868 and rs1051730 were identical so they were analyzed together. Further analysis revealed the association between rs16969868-1051730 (OR = 2.66; 95% CI: 1.30–5.42) and number of cigarettes smoked per day (CPD) with heaviness of nicotine addiction measured by the Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence (FTND) (OR = 2.60; 95% CI: 1.24–5.43). No association between these polymorphisms and other phenotypes was found. Similarly, the association between rs588765, rs6495308, rs578776, and analyzed phenotypes was not confirmed. This study provides strong evidence for the role of the CHRNA5-CHRNA3-CHRNB4 cluster in heaviness of nicotine addiction.

For the past several years the number of women suffering from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) has been steadily increasing. This fact prompts the debate which factors, in addition to considerably increasing prevalence of cigarette smoking among young women, are responsible for these epidemiologic changes. Differences in the natural history and prognosis of COPD in females and males are presented in the paper, as well as the number of potential ethiopathogenetic and pathophysiologic factors influencing these variations. Among them, differences in the COPD risk factors spectrum in both genders and in airways anatomy are pointed out, and the mechanisms responsible for greater women's susceptibility to components of cigarette smoke, which reflect genetic (enzyme polymorphisms), epigenetic (diminished DNA methylation) and hormonal (estrogens) influences on xenobiotics metabolism. Further, sex-related differences regarding COPD phenotypes (chronic bronchitis vs. emphysema), immunological markers and clinical manifestation of disease are underlined in the paper. More frequent coexistence of anxiety and depression, COPD exacerbations and worse quality of life in women are also emphasized. Other differences, pointed out by authors include autoimmunological conception of pathogenesis of COPD (greater female susceptibility to produce autoantibodies), risk factors of disease exacerbation and, at last, response to certain forms of COPD treatment (nicotine replacement therapy, long-term oxygen therapy).

Background Polymorphisms in dopaminergic genes may influence cigarette smoking by their potential impact on dopamine reward pathway function. A1 allele of DRD2 gene is associated with a reduced dopamine D2 receptor density, and it has been hypothesised that A1 carriers are more vulnerable to smoking. In turn, the 9-repeat allele of dopamine transporter gene (SLC6A3) has been associated with a substantial reduction in dopamine transporter, what might result in the higher level of dopamine in the synaptic cleft, and thereby protective role of this allele from smoking. In the present study we investigated whether polymorphic variants of DRD2 and SLC6A3 genes and their combinations are associated with the smoking habit in the Polish population. Methods Genotyping for TaqIA polymorphism of DRD2 and SLC6A3 VNTR polymorphism was performed in 150 ever-smokers and 158 never-smokers. The association between the smoking status and smoking phenotypes (related to the number of cigarettes smoked daily and age of starting regular smoking), and genotype/genotype combinations was expressed by ORs together with 95% CI. Alpha level of 0.05, with Bonferroni correction whenever appropriate, was used for statistical significance. Results At the used alpha levels no association between DRD2 and SLC6A3 genotypes and smoking status was found. However, A1 allele carriers reported longer abstinence periods on quitting attempts than non-carriers (p = 0.049). The ORs for heavier smoking were 0.38 (0.17-0.88), p = 0.023, and 0.39 (0.17-0.88), p = 0.021 in carriers compared to non-carriers of A1 or *9 allele, respectively, and the OR for this smoking phenotype was 8.68 (2.47-30.46), p = 0.0005 for the A1-/9- genotype combination, relatively to the A1+/9+. Carriers of *9 allele of SLC6A3 had over twice a lower risk to start smoking before the age of 20 years compared to non-carriers (sex-adjusted OR = 0.44; 95% CI: 0.22-0.89; p = 0.0017), and subjects with A1-/9- genotype combination had a higher risk for staring regular smoking before the age of 20 years in comparison to subjects with A1+/9+ genotype combination (sex-adjusted OR = 3.79; 95% CI:1.03-13.90; p = 0.003). Conclusion Polymorphic variants of DRD2 and SLC6A3 genes may influence some aspects of the smoking behavior, including age of starting regular smoking, the level of cigarette consumption, and periods of abstinence. Further large sample studies are needed to verify this hypothesis.

Background A better understanding of the genetic determinants of tobacco smoking might help in developing more effective cessation therapies, tailored to smokers' genotype. Insertion/deletion polymorphism in the promoter region of the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR) has been linked to vulnerability to smoking and ability to quit. We aimed to determine whether 5-HTTLPR genotype is associated with smoking behavior in Caucasians from Northern Poland and to investigate other risk factors for tobacco smoking. Methods 5-HTTLPR genotypes were determined in 149 ever smokers (66 females; mean age 53.0 years) and 158 gender and ethnicity matched never smoking controls (79 females; mean age 45.0 years) to evaluate the association of this polymorphism with ever smoking status. Analysis of smokers was performed to evaluate the role of 5-HTTLPR in the age of starting regular smoking, the number of cigarettes smoked daily, pack-years, FTND score, duration of smoking, and the mean length of the longest abstinence on quitting. Genotype was classified according to the presence or absence of the short (S) allele vs. the long (L) allele of 5-HTTLPR (i.e., S/S + S/L vs. L/L). Logistic regression analysis was also used to evaluate correlation between ever smoking and several selected variables. Results We found no significant differences in the rates of S allele carriers in ever smokers and never smokers, and no relationship was observed between any quantitative measures of smoking and the polymorphism. Multivariate analysis demonstrated significant association between the older age (OR = 4.03; 95% CI: 2.33–6.99) and alcohol dependence (OR = 10.23; 95% CI: 2.09–50.18) and smoking. Conclusion 5-HTTLPR seems to be not a major factor determining cigarette smoking in Poles. Probably, the risk of smoking results from a large number of genes, each contributing a small part of the overall risk, while numerous non-genetic factors might strongly influence these genetic undergrounds of susceptibility to smoking.

In the present study we assessed the impact of former cigarette smoking on asthma control and treatment effectiveness.A total of 104 patients with uncontrolled asthma were included in the study. The group of former smokers consisted of 33 subjects, whereas the never smokers group consisted of 71 subjects of similar age and gender. Spirometry, classification of asthma severity, and control were assessed according to Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA) guidelines. Quality of life was measured with the use of the Saint George Hospital Respiratory Questionnaire (SGHRQ).Asthma was more severe in the group of former smokers both before and after treatment; p0.001. Severe asthma (OR 7.8 CI 2.8-21.9) and cigarette smoking (OR 3.5 CI 1.3-9.2) were associated with difficulties in asthma control achievement. Total quality of life significantly improved in the group of non-smokers; p = 0.02, whereas in former smokers this effect was not significant; p0.05.Cigarette smoking has a persistent, dose-dependent, negative impact on the response to treatment in patients with uncontrolled asthma even after smoking cessation. Smoking cessation should remain the ultimate goal in treatment of asthmatic patients. More efforts should be undertaken to decrease smoking initiation, especially in teenagers.

A case of Wegener's granulomatosis in female aged 47 is described. Otological symptoms and signs connected with middle ear inflammation and masked mastoiditis about two months outstriped other signs particular from lower respiratory tract. The patient was surgically treated--antromastoidectomy was performed. After few days rapid worsening of patient's general state followed with hectic fever and inflammatory pulmonary changes. The patient was next treated in the Clinic of Pulmonary Diseases and Tuberculosis where the diagnosis of Wegener's granulomatosis was established on the basis of immunological findings (antibodies c-ANCA and PR3). The patient is treated from 9 months with cyclophosphamide and prednisone with improvement. The inability of ENT-surgeon in proper diagnosis and treatment in initial stage of the disease is stressed.

Osteocalcin is the most important noncollagenous protein component of the bone. Polymorphisms of osteocalcin gene were reported to be associated with bone mineral density. However, this relation was only confirmed in some populations. In this study presence of C/T polymorphism in osteocalcin gene (rs1800247) was determined in Kashubian population (northern Poland). The frequencies of variants were CC 9 %, TC 31 %, and TT 60 %, with no significant differences between genders. The genotypes were in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium.

The pathogenesis of sarcoidosis remains still unknown. Among numerous factors viruses are considered as potential causes. The aim of the study was investigation of human T-cell lymphotopic virus type I (HTLV-I) in sarcoidosis patients. Studied group (I) consisted of 52 patients: 29 women and 23 men aged from 24 to 62 years; mean age 40 years. The diagnosis of sarcoidosis was confirmed by histologic examination in 46 patients and on the base of clinical, HRCT--chest scan and BAL findings in 6 patients. Control group (II) consisted of 92 various pulmonary disorders patients and healthy subjects in the aged from 20 to 83 years; mean age 54 years. In both groups the ELISA test detecting antibodies against HTLV-I/II was performed with the use the diagnostic kit produced by Organon Teknika, Belgium. Results were interpreted by measuring the optical density (OD). The cut-off point 0.386 was established according to the rule defined by kit's producent. The values of OD ranged in group I from 0.061 to 0.384 and in group II from 0.047 to 0.213; thus, no positive results of the test were observed. The values of OD did not differ significantly in both groups (p = 0.59).In our region the participation of HTLV-I in the pathogenesis of sarcoidosis is doubtful.

Background In the last decade Poland has successfully carried out effective anti-tobacco campaigns and introduced tobacco control legislation. This comprehensive strategy has focused on the general population and has led to a considerable decrease in tobacco consumption. Prisoners constitute a relatively small part of the entire Polish population and smoking habits in this group have been given little attention. The aim of the study was to assess the prevalence of cigarette smoking in Polish male prisoners, factors determining smoking in this group, prisoners' attitudes towards smoking cessation, and to evaluate prisoners' perception of different anti-tobacco measures. Methods An anonymous questionnaire including personal, demographic and smoking data was distributed among 944 male inmates. Of these, 907 men aged between 17 and 62 years (mean 32.3 years) met the inclusion criteria of the study. For the comparison of proportions, a chi-square test was used with continuity correction whenever appropriate. Results In the entire group, 81% of the subjects were smokers, 12% – ex-smokers, and 7% – never smokers. Current smokers had significantly lower education level than non-smokers (p < 0.0001) and ever-smokers more frequently abused other psychoactive substances than never smokers (p < 0.0001). Stress was reported as an important factor in prompting smoking (77%). Forty-nine percent of daily smokers were aware of the adverse health consequences of smoking. The majority of smokers (75%) had attempted to quit smoking in the past. Forty percent of smoking prisoners considered an award for abstaining from cigarettes as the best means to limit the prevalence of smoking in prisons. Conclusion The prevalence of cigarette smoking among Polish prisoners is high. However, a majority of smokers attempt to quit, and they should be encouraged and supported. Efforts to reduce cigarette smoking in prisons need to take into consideration the specific factors influencing smoking habits in prisons.