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The work reports on an experimental programme, conducted to validate comprehensively our previously proposed coupled chemo-transport model for external sulfate attack on concrete. Specifically, the effects of the concentration of sulfate solution and temperature on the distribution of sulfate ions in concrete are experimentally investigated and used to demonstrate the accuracy of the modeling framework. Further, the profile of aluminate depletion and the leaching depth numerically are investigated. For all cases the model predictions are in good agreement with the experimental results, showing increases of the concentration of sulfate ions in concrete with higher concentrations of sulfate solution and higher temperatures. It is concluded that higher sulfate solution concentration and temperature enhance the processes involved in the external sulfate attack on concrete, namely diffusion of sulfate ions and their chemical reactions with concrete. It is found that these parameters affect the external sulfate attack predominantly via the chemical reaction process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sulfate-induced deterioration can reduce the service life of a concrete structure. A coupled chemo-transport-damage model for external sulfate attack is developed, which predicts the effects of calcium leaching and temperature on the deterioration processes. Specifically, calcium leaching is described using a solid–liquid equilibrium curve, and temperature effects are included in the creation of a temperature gradient and in the rates of chemical reactions, calcium leaching, and ion transport. The model is validated using published experimental results, and the effects of calcium leaching and temperature on expansion are analyzed. The results show that model predictions agree well with the available experimental data. One conclusion is that calcium leaching has a strong effect on deterioration, and therefore should be included when modeling external sulfate attack. Temperature influences sulfate attack, but a more substantial conclusion about the effect of temperature requires further experimental evidence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Assessing the long-term durability of concrete structures subjected to external sulfate attack (ESA) poses a significant challenge, primarily due to the lack of a well-defined quantitative metric for durability limit states. Traditional performance indicators such as compressive strength, mass loss, and expansion strain are insufficient for providing a comprehensive understanding of the extent of damage and are often difficult to measure accurately in practice. The primary objective of this study is to introduce a novel durability failure indicator, namely the failure thickness of concrete under ESA exposure, designed to quantitatively assess the ultimate limit state of concrete durability. Experiments were conducted and the results confirmed that the failure thickness can reliably reflect changes in both the elastic modulus and compressive strength of concrete exposed to ESA. A prediction model for estimating the failure thickness was subsequently developed, integrating key influencing factors like sulfate concentration, initial aluminate content, and sulfate ion diffusion coefficient. The established model exhibited a high degree of correlation between the predicted and experimental failure thickness values, with a low margin of error. The findings of this research contribute to serve as a foundation for both lifespan prediction and durability design of concrete structures exposed to sulfate-rich environments. • We propose a durability failure indicator based on critical sulfate concentration. • Concrete performance deterioration can be well characterized by failure thickness. • The validity of the prediction model of failure thickness was confirmed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The influences of moisture variations on ion transport and physical crystallization were discussed. • The respective contributions of chemical and physical attack to crystallization pressure were distinguished. • The deterioration in concrete performance was considered under the combined impacts of external sulfate attack and drying–wetting cycles. • A transport-chemical-physical–mechanical model was developed to evaluate and predict damage progression to concrete. When coupled with drying–wetting cycles, the deterioration process of concrete subjected to external sulfate attack (ESA) is significantly accelerated. The impact of moisture variations on ion transport was considered to establish a mass conservation equation with pore solution concentration as the variable. The contributions of chemical and physical attack to crystallization pressure were distinguished, and a bulk modulus reduction function was introduced to ascertain the stiffness deterioration. An ESA model was proposed and verified by comparing it to published experimental data, which could accurately predict the deterioration process of concrete under ESA and drying–wetting cycles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]