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A multicomponent approach for the treatment of pediatric overweight/obesity, which includes behavioral strategies to alter diet and physical activity/sedentary behavior, has graded recommendations for its use. Dietary interventions to be used within this approach do not. In adults, research indicates that strongly graded dietary interventions providing greater structure (or more control over the types/amount of food consumed) produce better weight outcomes. For this critical review, dietary interventions recommended by the Expert Committee for the treatment of pediatric overweight/obesity were categorized according to their potential degree of dietary structure, and their impact on weight outcomes was described. Four levels of dietary structure were reviewed, operationalized as alterations to the following: food groups, such as fruits and vegetables (low structure); daily eating occasions, such as meals (moderate structure); large nutrients, such as energy (high structure); and energy plus additional dietary alterations (very high structure). In total, 24 interventions (four low, three moderate, five high, and 12 very high structure structure) were identified and reviewed. Reductions in standardized body mass index increased with increasing structure, and interventions ≥6 months had better outcomes than interventions <6 months. Future research should empirically test dietary intervention structure to determine its impact on weight status during pediatric overweight/obesity treatment., (© 2021 World Obesity Federation.)

Background: Exercising at a consistent versus variable time of day cross-sectionally relates to greater moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) among weight loss maintainers. This study evaluated the relationships between exercise timing and both MVPA levels and habit strength, as well as stability in exercise timing, over 1 year among maintainers in the National Weight Control Registry., Methods: Participants (n = 709) completed questionnaires assessing exercise timing, MVPA, and exercise automaticity (a measure of habit) at baseline and 1-year follow-up. At each assessment, participants were labeled temporally consistent exercisers if >50% of their exercise sessions per week occurred in one time window: early morning, late morning, afternoon, or evening. Participants exercising consistently during the same window at both assessments were labeled as having stable patterns., Results: Temporally consistent exercise at baseline, regardless of its specific time, related to greater MVPA over time (Ps< .05). Approximately half of temporally consistent exercisers at baseline exhibited stable patterns. Early morning exercise and greater exercise automaticity at baseline predicted stable patterns (Ps< .005). Temporally consistent exercise, especially during the early morning, related to greater automaticity across time (Ps< .01)., Conclusions: Consistent exercise timing may help maintainers accrue more MVPA. Consistent early morning exercise was most strongly related to exercise automaticity and routine stability.

Objective: This study aimed to evaluate whether consistency in time of day that moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity (MVPA) is performed relates to MVPA levels among successful weight loss maintainers in the National Weight Control Registry., Methods: Participants (n = 375) reporting MVPA on ≥ 2 d/wk completed measures of temporal consistency in physical activity (PA) (> 50% of MVPA sessions per week occurring during the same time window: early/late morning, afternoon, or evening), PA levels, PA automaticity, and consistency in cues underlying PA habit formation (e.g., location)., Results: Most (68.0%) participants reported temporally consistent MVPA. These individuals reported higher MVPA frequency (4.8 ± 1.6 vs. 4.4 ± 1.5 d/wk; P = 0.007) and duration (median [IQR]: 350.0 [200.0-510.0] vs. 285.0 [140.0-460.0] min/wk; P = 0.03), and they were more likely to achieve the national MVPA guideline (≥ 150 min/wk) than temporally inconsistent exercisers (86.3% vs. 74.2%, P = 0.004). Among temporally consistent exercisers, 47.8% were early-morning exercisers; MVPA levels did not differ by time of day of routine MVPA performance (P > 0.05). Greater automaticity and consistency in several cues were related to greater MVPA among all participants., Conclusions: Most participants reported consistent timing of MVPA. Temporal consistency was associated with greater MVPA, regardless of the specific time of day of routine MVPA performance. Consistency in exercise timing and other cues might help explain characteristic high PA levels among successful maintainers., (© 2019 The Obesity Society.)

Background: This study examines whether performance of bout-related physical activity (PA) during morning hours is related to greater overall bout-related PA increases within a preoperative PA intervention for bariatric surgery (BS) patients., Methods: Participants with severe obesity (n = 33; mean age = 45.6 ± 9.6 years; BMI = 45.7 ± 7.0 kg/m 2 ) seeking BS were randomized to and completed 6 weeks of preoperative PA counseling (retention = 82.5%). Participants were encouraged to walk daily at a moderate intensity in bouts ≥ 10 minutes during morning hours to overcome time-related obstacles and establish a PA habit. Timing and amount of bout-related moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) was assessed via objective monitor at pre- and postintervention., Results: Greater proportion of bout-related MVPA performed during morning hours (4:00 AM-12:00 PM) at postintervention was associated with larger total increases in bout-related MVPA minutes/day (β = .40, P = .03). At postintervention, a greater proportion of participants whose longest MVPA bouts occurred during morning hours (n = 11) achieved the public health guideline (ie, ≥150 bout-related MVPA minutes/week) versus those whose longest MVPA bouts occurred during nonmorning hours (n = 19; 63.6% vs. 26.3%, P = .04)., Conclusions: Intervention-related increases in PA tended to be greatest when PA was performed in the morning. Morning exercise may be a viable strategy for promoting habitual PA in inactive BS patients.

Objective: To evaluate a commercial online weight loss program and activity tracker, which are popular but have unknown efficacy., Methods: Two hundred seventy-nine participants with BMI 27 to 40 kg/m 2 were randomized to 12 months of the Weight Watchers Online program alone (WWO) or with the ActiveLink ® activity tracking device (WWO+AL) or an online newsletter (Control)., Results: Weight losses at 3 months were significantly greater in WWO (2.7 kg [95% confidence interval (CI), 2.0-3.5 kg] than Control (1.3 kg [95% CI, 0.5-2.0 kg]; P = 0.01); neither differed from WWO+AL (2.0 kg [95% CI, 1.3-2.7 kg]; Ps > 0.56). Significantly more WWO participants (24.5%) achieved ≥ 5% weight loss at 3 months than Control (9.4%) (P = 0.01); neither differed from WWO+AL (17.6%) (Ps = 0.13-0.28). At 12 months, there were no significant differences between groups in weight loss (Ps > 0.52). WWO (25.5%) continued to have a higher proportion of participants achieving ≥ 5% weight loss than Control (12.9%) (P = 0.04); neither differed from WWO+AL (14.3%) (Ps > 0.10). There were no significant between-group differences in change in physical activity (Ps > 0.17)., Conclusions: WWO produced significantly more weight loss at 3 months relative to Control, but not at 12 months. Significantly more WWO than Control participants lost ≥ 5% at both 3 and 12 months. Participants receiving an activity tracking device did not achieve greater weight loss or physical activity increases than those in a Control condition., (© 2017 The Obesity Society.)

Background: This investigation examined whether exposure to greater active videogame variety increases moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity (MVPA)., Methods: Twenty-three participants (age=22.7±4.2yrs; body mass index=23.5±3.0kg/m(2); self-reported MVPA=298.7±116.7min/wk; 62.2% female; 73.9% Caucasian) participated in VARIETY (4 different active videogames during 4, 15-min bouts) and NON-VARIETY (only 1 active videogame during 4, 15-min bouts) counterbalanced sessions. VARIETY provided a different active videogame in each bout. NON-VARIETY provided participants their most highly liked active videogame in each bout. The Sensewear Mini Armband objectively assessed MVPA., Results: For MVPA minutes, a session×bout (p<0.05) interaction occurred. In NON-VARIETY, bouts 2, 3, and 4 had significantly (p<0.05) fewer minutes than bout 1, with no decrease occurring in VARIETY. In bout 4, VARIETY had significantly (p<0.05) more minutes than NON-VARIETY. A main effect of session (p<0.05) occurred for MVPA minutes and energy expenditure, with VARIETY achieving greater amounts (31.8±14.3min vs. 27.6±16.9min; 186.1±96.8kcal vs. 171.2±102.8kcal)., Conclusions: Exposure to greater activity variety within a session increased MVPA. Future research should examine exposure to a variety of activities over a longer time frame with participants of differing lifestyles in free-living environments., (Copyright © 2016. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Objectives: To examine if physical activity (PA) variety was associated with moderate- to vigorous-intensity PA (MVPA) energy expenditure and body mass index (BMI) at 18 months during an obesity intervention., Methods: Participants with ≥ 10 minutes/week of MVPA at 6 months and complete PA data were included. Participants were classified into Variety (N = 30), ≥ 2 different activities/week, or Less Variety (N = 65), only 1 activity/week., Results: Weekly MVPA-related energy expenditure was higher for Variety than Less Variety (3674.7 ± 1934.6 kcal/week vs 2197.3 ± 1841.4 kcal/week, p < .05) at 18 months, with no difference in BMI., Conclusions: Greater weekly PA variety during obesity treatment was related to greater 18-month MVPA energy expenditure.

Acute energy and macronutrient intake following an Exercise and Control protocol was compared to determine if active, normal-weight males regulate acute energy intake better, demonstrating more acute accurate energy compensation capabilities, than inactive, normal-weight males after exercise. Males (21.2±1.9 years) of normal percent body fat (10.0-18.0%) and body mass index (23.4±1.7 kg/m(2)), exercising ≥150 min/week (Active: n=10) or ≤60 min/week (Inactive: n=10), completed two protocols, counterbalanced across participants. The exercise protocol (Exercise) was 45-min on a cycle ergometer and the Control protocol consisted of 45-min of reading. Sixty minutes after protocols, an ad libitum meal was provided. Energy and macronutrient intake from the meal was determined. Inactive ate significantly less energy in the ad libitum meal in Exercise as compared to Control, demonstrating acute negative energy compensation (consumed less in the meal while expending more energy in Exercise as compared to Control). Active had no difference in meal energy intake between the protocols, but due to Inactive's reduced acute energy intake in Exercise, Active demonstrated better acute energy compensation than Inactive. No difference in meal macronutrient intake was found. Overall, Active demonstrated better acute energy compensation than Inactive., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To determine whether eating, sedentary, and physical activity behaviors differ on weekdays and weekends in a sample of children who are overweight and obese., Methods: Eighty-one children aged 6-9 years old who were overweight or obese and enrolled in a weight management program completed three-day food diaries and three-day Previous Day Physical Activity Recalls (PDPARs) for two weekdays and one weekend day. All data were obtained at baseline prior to intervention delivery., Results: Children consumed a greater percentage of calories from fat (t = 2.15, p = 0.04) and fewer fruits (t = 6.83, p < 0.001), vegetables (t = 2.91, p = 0.002), non-nutrient dense (NND) snack foods (t = 5.58, p < 0.001), and sweetened drinks (t = 2.91, p = 0.005) on weekends. Children watched more television (t = 5.25, p < 0.001), expended more energy (t = 4.37, p < 0.001), and spent a greater percentage of time in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (p < 0.001) on weekends compared to weekdays., Conclusions: Findings demonstrate a number of differences in children's eating and activity habits on weekends and weekdays. They also suggest that attending to differences in food intake and activity habits on weekdays and weekends separately may help to identify periods of high risk, which could be modified with effective intervention approaches., Trial Registration Numbers: NCT00259324, NCT00200265.

Background: Youth may choose to be sedentary rather than physically active., Purpose: The purpose of this study was to use behavioral economics methods to investigate how experimental changes in the amount of sedentary behaviors influenced physical activity., Methods: Fifty-eight 8- to 16-year-old youth were studied in a within-subject crossover design with three 3-week phases: baseline, increasing, and decreasing targeted sedentary behaviors by 25% to 50%., Results: At baseline, boys were more active than girls (518.9 vs. 401.2 accelerometer counts/min, p = .02), and obese youth more sedentary than nonobese youth (240.5 vs. 174.4 min/day, p = .003). During the increase sedentary behavior phase, targeted sedentary behaviors increased by 52.1%, with girls increasing sedentary behaviors more than boys (114.7 vs. 79.8 min/day, p = .04). Physical activity decreased (-48.3 counts/min, p < .01) when sedentary behaviors increased, with obese youth decreasing total and moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) more than nonobese youth (-110.4 vs. 8.9 counts/min, p < .001; -3.3 vs. -.03 % MVPA, p = .013). During the decrease sedentary behavior phase, targeted sedentary behaviors decreased by 55.6% from baseline as nonobese youth increased physical activity, whereas obese youth decreased physical activity (55.8 vs. -48.0 counts/min, p = .042; 1.1 vs. -2.1% MVPA, p = .021). Youth who substituted physical activity when sedentary behaviors were increased had greater standardized body mass index (z-body mass index = 1.4 vs. 0.4, p = .018), whereas youth who substituted physical activity when sedentary behaviors were decreased were less active at baseline (396.1 vs. 513.7 counts/min, p = .035)., Conclusions: Behavioral economics provides a methodology to understand changes in physical activity when sedentary behaviors are modified and to identify factors associated with substitution of physically active for sedentary behaviors.

Background: Changes in sedentary behavior may be related to changes in energy intake., Objective: The purpose of this study was to investigate how experimental changes in the amount of sedentary behaviors influence energy intake., Design: Sixteen nonoverweight 12-16-y-old youth were studied in a within-subject crossover design with three 3-wk phases: baseline, increasing targeted sedentary behaviors by 25-50% (increase phase), and decreasing targeted sedentary behaviors by 25-50% (decrease phase). Repeated 24-h recalls were used to assess energy and macronutrient intakes during targeted sedentary behaviors. Accelerometers were used to assess activity levels., Results: Targeted sedentary behaviors increased by 81.5 min/d (45.8%) and decreased by 109.8 min/d (-61.2%) from baseline (both: P<0.01). Girls increased sedentary behaviors significantly more than did boys (107.3 and 55.8 min/d, respectively; P<0.01) in the increase phase. Energy intake decreased (-463.0 kcal/d; P<0.01) when sedentary behaviors decreased: the decrease in fat intake was -295.2 kcal/d (P<0.01). No significant changes in energy intake were observed when sedentary behaviors were increased. Youth also increased their activity by 102.4 activity counts min-1d-1 (estimated at 113.1 kcal) when sedentary behaviors were decreased (P<0.05)., Conclusions: Decreasing sedentary behaviors can decrease energy intake in nonoverweight adolescent youth and should be considered an important component of interventions to prevent obesity and to regulate body weight.

This study compared weight control strategies during the winter holidays among successful weight losers (SWL) in the National Weight Control Registry and normal weight individuals (NW) with no history of obesity. SWL (n = 178) had lost a mean of 34.9 kg and had kept greater than or equal to 13.6 kg off for a mean of 5.9 years. NW (n = 101) had a body mass index of 18.5-24.9 kg/m[superscript 2]. More SWL than NW reported plans to be extremely strict in maintaining their usual dietary routine (27.3% vs. 0%) and exercise routine (59.1% vs. 14.3%) over the holidays. Main effects for group indicated that SWL maintained greater exercise, greater attention to weight and eating, greater stimulus control, and greater dietary restraint, both before and during the holidays. A Group x Time interaction indicated that, over the holidays, attention to weight and eating declined significantly more in SW than in NW. More SWL (38.9%) than NW (16.7%) gained greater than or equal to 1 kg over the holidays, and this effect persisted 1 month later (28.3% and 10.7%, respectively). SWL worked harder than NW did to manage their weight, but they appeared more vulnerable to weight gain during the holidays. (Contains 2 tables, 2 figures, and 1 footnote.)

Background: Physical activity (PA) is enjoyable, but there are barriers to participation. TV viewing is highly enjoyable with limited barriers. Exercising while viewing TV may impact enjoyment, exercise self-efficacy, and barriers to PA, compared with exercising without TV. Methods: 58 sedentary, overweight adults were randomized to 1 of 2 PA prescriptions: one that increased PA during TV viewing (TV Commercial Stepping), and another that focused solely on PA (Walking). Random effects models tested changes in enjoyment of TV and PA, exercise self-efficacy, and barriers to PA across time (baseline, 3, and 6 months) and PA prescription during a 6-month PA intervention. Results: At baseline, TV was more enjoyable than PA. Over the 6-month intervention, enjoyment of TV viewing did not change, but enjoyment of PA and exercise self-efficacy significantly increased, while barriers to PA significantly decreased for both groups compared with baseline (P < .05). Conclusions: While enjoyment of TV viewing remained constant, PA became more enjoyable, confidence to exercise increased, and barriers to being active were reduced for previously sedentary adults participating in a behavioral PA intervention. These findings highlight the importance of encouraging inactive adults to engage in some form of PA, whether it occurs with or without TV viewing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The use of mobile phones for physical activity (PA) promotion and assessment represents an attractive research area because this technology is characterized by a widespread reach and dynamic features.Purpose:The purpose of this study was to conduct a systematic review of mobile phone–based approaches for encouraging and assessing PA.Methods:Eligible studies were identified through a search of PubMed and PsycINFO and required to address the usability of mobile phones for PA promotion and/or measurement, be written in English, and be published in a peer-reviewed journal between 2010 and 2013.Results:Fifty-two studies were included in this review. The use of mobile phones for PA promotion, assessment, and both promotion and assessment were addressed by 27, 19, and 6 studies, respectively. Out of 26 studies that reported a PA behavior change outcome, 13 observed favorable PA changes, 3 found mixed results, and 10 found no improvements. Ten studies examined the validity of mobile phones for PA assessment and 9 reported favorable outcomes. Participants found mobile phones to be highly acceptable.Discussion:The findings suggest that mobile phones have great potential as a PA promotion and assessment tool among a variety of individuals.Translation to Health Education Practice:Mobile phones may provide practitioners with efficient ways to promote PA and valid ways to assess PA. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Purpose:The purpose of our study was to examine the monitoring capabilities of the Omron HJ-720ITC pedometer and determine the feasibility of using it in physical activity interventions.Methods:Using data from an 8-week lifestyle-intervention study, we tested the capabilities of the pedometer for recording physical activity data. Data from a total of 28 subjects were used in our analysis. The total number of patient steps per day was recorded over the duration of an intervention, as well as “aerobic steps per day” (ie, those taken at a cadence of > 60 steps per minute for ≥ 10 consecutive minutes). Daily wear time was computed in order to ascertain participant compliance in wearing the pedometer. In addition, aerobic steps per minute were computed, providing an assessment of activity intensity during continuous walking bouts.Results:Total steps per day and aerobic steps per day increased from baseline assessment to Week 8. Participants exceeded 100 steps/minute for 89% of their aerobic minutes, suggesting that they were in the moderate-intensity range (3–6 metabolic equivalent tasks) when performing continuous bouts of walking (> 10 minutes).Conclusion:The new pedometer is a reasonably priced, wearable activity monitor that is feasible for use in clinical and research settings. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Background: It is recommended that endurance athletes consume carbohydrate (CHO) supplements, providing 6-8% CHO concentration, during exercise > 60 minutes to improve athletic performance. Recently research has compared carbohydrate-protein (CHO-P) supplementation to the traditionally used CHO supplementation during endurance exercise, following these supplementation recommendations, in controlled settings, but not under simulated applied conditions such as a field trial. Therefore, the purpose of the present investigation was to test CHO and CHO-P supplementation under applied conditions such that commercially-available isocaloric (CHO-P & double-carbohydrate [CHO-CHO]) and isocarbohydrate (CHO-P & CHO) supplements were compared to a placebo (PLA), within an outdoor running field trial > 60 minutes in order to asses their influence on endurance performance. Methods: Twelve male recreational runners completed four, 19.2 km runs, where they were instructed to run at a pace similar to race pace including a final sprint to the finish, which in this case was the final two laps of the course (1.92 km). Supplementation was provided before the start and in 4 km increments. Performance was measured by time to complete the 19.2 km run and last 1.92 km sprint. Results: Analyses found no difference between supplements in time to complete the 19.2 kmrun (PLA=88.6±11.6 min, CHO = 89.1 ± 11.3 min, CHO-P = 89.1 ± 11.8 min, CHO-CHO = 89.6 ± 11.9 min) or last 1.92 km sprint to the finish (PLA = 8.3 ± 1.2 min, CHO = 8.2 ± 1.2 min, CHO-P = 8.2 ± 1.2 min, CHO-CHO = 8.4 ± 1.5 min). Conclusions: When following recommendation for supplementation within a field trial, commercially available CHO and CHO-P supplements do not appear to enhance performance in male recreational runners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given the importance of physical activity (PA) for weight control, identifying strategies to achieve higher PA levels is imperative. We hypothesized that performing a greater variety of self-reported moderate-to-vigorous activities (MVPAs) would relate to higher objectively measured MVPA minutes in two groups who were successfully maintaining their body weight: weight loss maintainers (WLM/n = 226) and normal-weight individuals (NW/n = 169). The Paffenbarger Questionnaire and RT3 accelerometer were used to determine variety/number of different MVPAs performed and MVPA minutes, respectively. The variety/number of different activities performed by WLM and NW was similar (1.8 ± 1.2 versus 1.7 ± 1.2, P = 0.52). Regression analyses showed that greater variety (P < 0.01) and WLM status (P < 0.05) were each positively related to greater MVPA minutes/day and meeting the ⩾250 MVPA minutes/week guideline for long-term weight maintenance. The association between greater variety and higher MVPA was similar in NW and WLM. Future studies should test whether variety can facilitate engagement in higher MVPA levels for more effective weight control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To examine the home environments of overweight and normal-weight adults and the relationships between the environment and weight-regulating behaviors. Methods: Overweight (n=201) and normal-weight adults (n=213) assessed their homes via checklist and self-reported their eating and activity habits. Results: OW adults had less exercise equipment, fewer low-fat snacks and fruits/vegetables, and more TVs, high-fat snacks, and spreads than did NW adults (Ps<.01). These variables were associated (Ps<.05) with weight-regulating behaviors. Conclusions: Increasing healthy foods and opportunities for physical activity within the home may improve weight-control efforts in adults. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We propose that enjoyment is an important factor in the adoption and long-term maintenance of exercise. Television (TV) viewing is believed to be a highly enjoyed leisure-time activity, combining it with exercise may make for a more enjoyable exercise experience. The objective of this study was to examine the effects of television (TV) viewing on psychological and physiological variables during a moderate-intensity exercise bout. Twenty-eight insufficiently active (<150 minutes per week of moderate intensity PA and/or 75 minutes of vigorous PA) adults (Age: M = 47.4 ± 7.6 years) participated in this study. Each participant performed three separate 30-minute walking bouts on a motorized treadmill. During each bout, participants watched a program they selected (30-minute scripted show) (self-selected TV condition), a British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) nature program (standardized TV condition), or no TV program (no TV condition). Participants were unable to select the nature program as their self-selected program, as it was not a 30-minute scripted program. A Polar Heart Rate (HR) monitor and validated surveys on affect and enjoyment were used. Participants reported greater enjoyment of exercise for both self-selected and standardized TV conditions (97.1 ±15.2 and 92.7 ± 15.2), compared to the No TV condition (77.5 ± 13.4, p < 0.001). The two TV conditions resulted in similar levels of focus on TV viewing (self-selected TV: 81.2 ± 19.7; standardized TV: 79.1 ± 14.2, p > 0.05) and dissociation from walking (self-selected TV: 38.1 ± 6.7 and standardized TV: 33.2 ± 3.9); they also resulted in more dissociation than the no TV condition (TV: 72.6 ± 5.6, p = 0.002). The findings indicate that TV viewing, regardless of whether the programming is self-selected or standardized, associates with greater enjoyment of exercise. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Eating frequency has been negatively related to body mass index (BMI). The relationship between eating frequency and weight loss maintenance is unknown. This secondary analysis examined eating frequency (self-reported meals and snacks consumed per day) in weight loss maintainers (WLM) who had reduced from overweight/obese to normal weight, normal weight (NW) individuals, and overweight (OW) individuals. Data collected July 2006 to March 2007 in Providence, RI, included three 24-hour dietary recalls (2 weekdays, 1 weekend day) analyzed using Nutrient Data System for Research software from 257 adults (WLM n=96, 83.3% women aged 50.0±11.8 years with BMI 22.1±1.7; NW n=80, 95.0% women aged 46.1±11.5 years with BMI 21.1±1.4; OW n=81, 53.1% women aged 51.4±9.0 years with BMI 34.2±4.1) with plausible intakes. Participant-defined meals and snacks were ≥50 kcal and separated by more than 1 hour. Self-reported physical activity was highest in WLM followed by NW, and then OW (3,097±2,572 kcal/week, 2,062±1,286 kcal/week, and 785±901 kcal/week, respectively; P<0.001). Number of daily snacks consumed was highest in NW, followed by WLM, and then OW (2.3±1.1 snacks/day, 1.9±1.1 snacks/day, and 1.5±1.3 snacks/day, respectively; P<0.001). No significant group differences were observed in mean number of meals consumed (2.7±0.4 meals/day). Eating frequency, particularly in regard to a pattern of three meals and two snacks per day, may be important in weight loss maintenance. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]