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Summary As the most abundant and genetically diverse biological entities, viruses significantly influence ecological, biogeographical and evolutionary processes in the ocean. However, the biogeography of marine viruses and the drivers shaping viral community are unclear. Here, the biogeographic patterns of T4‐like viruses and the relative impacts of deterministic (environmental selection) and dispersal (spatial distance) processes were investigated in the northern South China Sea. The dominant viral operational taxonomic units were affiliated with previously defined Marine, Estuary, Lake and Paddy Groups. A clear viral biogeographic pattern was observed along the environmental gradient from the estuary to open sea. Marine Groups I and IV had a wide geographical distribution, whereas Marine Groups II, III and V were abundant in lower‐salinity continental or eutrophic environments. A significant distance‐decay pattern was noted for the T4‐like viral community, especially for those infecting cyanobacteria. Both deterministic and dispersal processes influenced viral community assembly, although environmental selection (e.g. temperature, salinity, bacterial abundance and community, etc.) had a greater impact than spatial distance. Network analysis confirmed the strong association between viral and bacterial community composition, and suggested a diverse ecological relationship (e.g. lysis, co‐infection or mutualistic) between and within viruses and their potential bacterial hosts.

The global biodiversity loss has increased the need to understand the effects of decreasing diversity, but our knowledge on how species loss will affect the functioning of communities and ecosystems is still very limited. Here, the levels of taxonomic and functional beta diversity and the effect of species loss on functional beta diversity were investigated in an estuary that provides a naturally steep environmental gradient. The study was conducted using diatoms that are among the most important microorganisms in all aquatic ecosystems and globally account for 40% of marine primary production. Along the estuary, the taxonomic beta diversity of diatom communities was high (Bray-Curtis taxonomic similarity 0.044) and strongly controlled by the environment, particularly wind exposure, salinity, and temperature. In contrast, the functional beta diversity was low (Bray-Curtis functional similarity 0.658) and much less controlled by the environment. Thus, the diatom communities stayed functionally almost similar despite large changes in species composition and environment. This may indicate that, through high taxonomic diversity and redundancy in functions, microorganisms provide an insurance effect against environmental change. However, when studying the effect of decreasing species richness on functional similarity of communities, simulated species loss to 45% of the current species richness decreased functional similarity significantly. This suggests that decreasing species richness may increase variability and reduce the stability and resilience of communities. These results highlight the importance of high taxonomic biodiversity for the stable functioning of benthic communities. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s00248-020-01576-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Increasing jellyfish abundance has been documented worldwide, though few studies have used standardized long-term data to examine jellyfish abundance across environmental gradients. Such datasets can provide an opportunity to analyze historical trends, document rates of change, and identify potential mechanisms of change. This study used standardized fishery monitoring data from Texas Parks and Wildlife Department from 1983 to 2013 to identify the abundance trends of three common scyphozoan jellyfish species in eight Texas bays that span environmental gradients. We hypothesized that jellyfish abundance would vary across the environmental gradient and jellyfish abundance would increase with increasing salinity and temperature. Although no strong abundance trends were observed, abundance peaks occurred in some bay systems. Salinity and temperature were found to be the most influential factors for jellyfish occurrence while dissolved oxygen ranked the lowest. Bell-curve functions generalized the relationship between salinity and scyphozoan abundance and identified abundance peaks at high estuarine salinities for A. aurita, and differing tolerance ranges for each species. Temperature relationships were generalized with a sigmoid function and highlighted tolerance at the highest water temperatures observed. These findings suggest that some jellyfish species may respond positively in Texas bays if climate change increases salinity and temperature regimes of estuaries.

Bacterial production is one of the key parameters to evaluate bacterial role in ocean carbon fluxes. Estimation of bacterial production requires the leucine-to-carbon conversion factors that change widely across environments. However, empirical leucine-to-carbon conversion factors (eCFs) are seldom determined in situ because of time consuming and little is known on regulating factors for the eCFs. During May 2015 to January 2016, fourteen dilution experiments were conducted, from the Zhujiang (Pearl River) Estuary to the coast of the northern South China Sea, to determine spatiotemporal variability in the eCFs and its potential controlling factors along an environmental gradient. The eCFs showed clear spatial variations with the highest (1.27–1.69 (kg C)/(mol Leu)) in low salinity waters (salinity 25). Substrate availability was responsible for spatial variability in the eCFs. In the pristine coastal waters, low eCFs was related to substrate limitation and leucine incorporated was respired to maximize the survival rather than bacterial production. Hence, the eCFs measurement was needed for estimating bacterial production accurately in various marine environments.

Improper management of plastic waste is an important contributor to the pollution in water bodies. However, how floating plastic debris is transported to coastal lagoons and marine conservation units is still poorly understood. This work determined the level of contamination due to floating plastic debris in Acarai Lagoon by establishing density distribution patterns along the lagoon ecocline in the winter and summer. Four areas were chosen that followed the estuarine gradient of the lagoon (external, lower, middle, and upper), and in each area, three samples of were collected by trawling with a plankton net. The plastic debris was classified into paint fragments, hard solids, plastic filaments, and soft plastics, and the plastic debris density and surface area were determined in each sampling area. The concentrations of the plastics in the downstream and upstream areas resulted from the high density of debris that occurred during the winter due to the absence of rain and the entry of coastal waters into the lagoon. The reduced abundance and surface area of the plastics in the summer were related to the substantial output of water from the interior of the lagoon to the mouth of the lagoon due to high rainfall during this season. The absence of plastic waste management actions and developed areas at the mouth of the lagoon that were associated with the spatial and temporal fluctuations in the environmental variables favored the occurrence and high abundance of plastic debris in the water column, contaminating the entire system of Acarai State Park.

Bacterial production (BP), respiration (BR) and growth efficiency (BGE) were simultaneously determined along an environmental gradient in the Pearl River Estuary (PRE) in the wet season (May 2015) and the dry season (January 2016), in order to examine bacterial responses to the riverine dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in the PRE. The Pearl River discharge delivered labile dissolved organic matters (DOM) with low DOC:DON ratio, resulting in a clear gradient in DOC concentrations and DOC:DON ratios. BP (3.93–144 μg C L−1 d−1) was more variable than BR (64.6–567 μg C L−1 d−1) in terms of the percentage, along an environmental gradient in the PRE. In response to riverine DOC input, BP and the cell-specific BP increased; in contrast, the cell-specific bacterial respiration declined, likely because labile riverine DOC mitigated energetic cost for cell maintenance. Consequently, an increase in bacterial respiration was less than expected. Our findings implied that the input of highly bioavailable riverine DOC altered the carbon portioning between anabolic and catabolic pathways, consequently decreasing the fraction of DOC that bacterioplankton utilized for bacterial respiration. This might be one of the underlying mechanisms for the low CO2 degassing in the PRE receiving large amounts of sewage DOC.

Shallow marine macrophyte communities serve key roles in the tropical coastal ecosystem but are undergoing large and rapid deterioration worldwide, as is also the case in the non-estuarine mangrove lagoon of Lac Bay, Bonaire, in the Southern Caribbean. To help better understand both the drivers of assemblage structure and potential consequences of the changes taking place in the bay, we here quantify and describe the distribution of algal and seagrass assemblages along the environmental gradient from the turbid, inner mangrove pools to the clear, open bay conditions, based on 98 randomly-chosen, 4 m2 survey plots. Seven assemblages were described along this land-to-sea gradient, five of which were dominated by marine macrophytes, one by sponges and one by a polychaete. With exception of the hypersaline backwaters which were devoid of benthic macrophyte vegetation, isolated mangrove pools showed the lowest total benthic cover, species richness and biodiversity of all habitats. Salinity and substrate particle-size composition accounted for most variation between the different assemblages and appear to be the key known determinants of assemblage composition. We developed a conceptual model to help disentangle the relationship between and the relative roles of the two principal drivers, as part of a cascade of effects which ultimately result from terrestrial run-off into the bay as mediated by mangrove encroachment into the bay. The model links spatial patterns to ongoing processes and implies that the assemblage patterns described are not only a reflection of, but also allow prediction of how the assemblages develop through time.

Despite mollusk species play important ecological functions in estuaries, most studies of their assemblage’s variations are based on traditional taxonomical approaches. Biological trait analysis is used in the present work to explore the relationships of the functional composition of mollusks with the environmental gradient along a coastal lagoon of the Southern Gulf of Mexico. Sampling was conducted monthly during a year in soft bottoms and subtidal stilt roots of red mangrove at six sampling sites along the lagoon. In total 24 mollusc species were collected and fitted to a particular category of three biological traits. Spatio-temporal variability of the functional composition of molluscs and their relationships with environmental variables were assessed using three approaches. Functional variations of the molluscan assemblages were detected along the lagoon using the three approaches, showing significant correlations to salinity. Nonetheless, the functional groups (FG) and the community weighed (CWM) mean traits approaches showed a clearer spatial pattern of the functional composition than the functional diversity (FD) approach The FG and the CWM approaches used in the present study could help to broadening the ecological studies of the estuarine systems of the Gulf of Mexico, particularly those aimed to assess the relations between the biological components and environmental variables in order to assess functioning of these ecosystems.

The study measured leaf gas exchange parameters and abundance of stable isotopes of C and N of three mangrove species (Rhizophora mangle L., Avicennia schaueriana Stapf & Leechm. ex Moldenke. and Laguncularia racemosa (L.) Gaertn) to investigate how photosynthetic capacity and water use efficiency characterize salt tolerance along an environmental gradient, in the Guaratuba Bay Estuary, Brazil, around 25°S. Along the estuary, parallel to the river, nine 50 m2 plots were marked: three plots at the fringe, three plots at the intermediary zone (around 150 m from the fringe), and three plots at the interior zone (around 350 m from the fringe), to represent the zonation pattern expressed by mangrove species. We used gas exchange parameters to calculate intrinsic water use efficiency (Amax/gs, WUEi). Long-term water use efficiency was calculated based on δ13C values, and δ15N values were related to source of N. Avicennia schaueriana showed the capacity to maintain high WUEi, even with high gs under higher salinities. The foliar δ13C of L. racemosa, was lower than the other species and negatively correlated to pore-water salinity. Rhizophora mangle gas exchange parameters did not correlate to the measured soil variables. Although the difference was not significant in R. mangle, δ 15N values indicate that fringe mangroves may use a marine source of N. How species respond to changes in pore-water salinity is expressed in both gas exchange parameters and isotopic signature through the floodplain gradient.

Variations in the relative importance of autotrophic sources to aquatic consumers along environmental gradients and the trophic role of mangrove-derived detritus to marine coastal food webs are still poorly investigated in tropical systems. In this study, we employed stable isotope analyses to investigate the relative importance of basal food sources to macroconsumers (decapod crustaceans and fishes) in a tropical estuary along an environmental gradient extending from the mangroves to the ocean. Additionally, we evaluated the ‘outwelling hypothesis’, which hypothesizes that mangrove-derived detritus exported to the adjacent marine area is a food source for marine macroconsumers at open and reef-protected sandy beaches. Primary producers and macroconsumers (62 and 214 samples, respectively) were collected at five locations across the main longitudinal axis of the Mamanguape estuary, a tropical Southwestern Atlantic estuary. There were marked shifts in carbon and nitrogen isotope values for both food sources and consumers along the estuarine-marine gradient, and the mixing model results revealed similar patterns of assimilation of basal food sources by decapod crustaceans and fishes. In the inner section of the estuary, consumers tended to assimilated nutrients derived mainly from mangrove and macroalgae, whereas nearer the mouth of the estuary and in the adjacent marine area they assimilated nutrients derived mainly from macroalgae, seagrass and organic matter in the sediment (SOM). These findings support the hypothesis that the relative importance of basal food sources to macroconsumers in this tropical estuarine system reflects the dominant autochthonous primary production at each location. In contrast, our results did not support the outwelling hypothesis that mangrove-originated detritus, in the form of senescent mangrove leaves, makes a significant contribution as a primary source of carbon to high-order consumers inhabiting adjacent ocean sandy beaches.

Blooms of the Microcystis aeruginosa complex (MAC) consist of mixtures of toxin-producing and non-toxin-producing populations, but the environmental conditions that determine their relative abundance and shift are not clear. Morphological traits reflect the responses of MAC organisms to environmental changes, thus they could be useful to improve the predictability of the abundance of both toxic and nontoxic populations. In this work, the response of MAC toxic populations to environmental conditions and their relationship with morphology (size of organisms) were investigated in different water bodies (reservoir, river, and estuary) covering wide salinity (0-33) and temperature (10-36 °C) gradients. Sub-surface water samples were collected and divided into 4 size classes (mesh size 〈20 µm, 20-60 µm, 60-150 µm and〉 150 µm) and three toxicity proxies were assessed (mcyE gene and transcripts copy numbers and microcystin concentration) for each size-class. For all the size-classes, the logarithm of the number of mcyE gene copies per sample was proportional to the logarithm of the corresponding biovolume fraction, showing that MAC biovolume is a good indicator of toxicity potential. When toxicity was analyzed through mcyE transcript abundance and microcystin concentration, the largest size fraction (150 µm) showed the highest toxicity values of both proxies. Nevertheless, mcyE transcription and toxin production per cell were higher in the colonies retained in the 60 to 150 µm size fractions, followed by single cells (20 µm). At the reservoir, where environmental variability is low, the total abundance of mcyE gene copies was significantly explained by MAC biovolume, regardless of the environmental conditions. However, when data from the reservoir to the estuary were modeled, biovolume and temperature (with a minor contribution of salinity and wind intensity) were selected in the best models. According to these results, the size distribution of MAC biovolume appears as a good predictor of active toxin production, being the colonies in the 60-150 µm size fraction good indicators of higher toxicity. These results can be used to predict MAC toxicity based on the size structure of the community.

This study aims to document the changes in modern pollen assemblages and soil elemental chemistry along broad edaphic, hydrological, and salinity gradients, including a previously undocumented secondary environmental gradient, in a vast mangrove-dominated wetland region in the Everglades, south Florida. Twenty-five soil surface samples were collected along an interior wetland transect and an estuarine mangrove transect across coastal zones in the Everglades National Park and subjected to palynological and XRF analyses. Modern pollen spectra from the sampling sites were classified into five a priori groups—wet prairie, pineland, inland mangroves, coastal mangroves, and fringe mangroves, based on the five vegetation types and sub-environments from which they were collected. Discriminant analysis shows that all (100%) of the samples are correctly classified into their a priori groups. On a broad scale, the modern pollen assemblages in surface samples collected from different vegetation types reflect the primary environmental gradient in the Florida Coastal Everglades. A distinct salinity and chemical gradient is also recorded in the XRF results, and the complexity of these gradients is captured at both regional and local scales. At the regional scale, concentrations of all the elements increase from terrestrial toward coastal sites. At the local scale, XRF results show a progressive decrease in most chemical concentrations and in the Cl/Br and Ca/Ti ratios away from the Shark River Slough at each individual site, suggesting that a secondary fluvial/tidal gradient also exists locally as a function of the distance from the river, the main carrier of these chemicals. This study provides new evidence to show that tidal flooding from the Shark River Estuary is directly related to the nutrient availability in the surrounding mangrove forests. These data will deepen our understanding of the environmental drivers behind the vegetation zonation in the region, especially in the mangrove ecosystems, and fill a gap in the pollen data network for the Everglades.

The usefulness of benthic multi-metric indices when assessing seafloor integrity across broad environmental gradients should be deliberated, as their lack of transparency might hide important sources of variation and fail to identify environmental change. This study compares the performance of two multi-metric indices; the Benthic Quality Index (BQI) and the Brackish water Benthic Index (BBI) between three sub-basins in the Baltic Sea. Both indices reflect the salinity-driven gradient in macroinvertebrate diversity and composition as well as changes in bottom water oxygen concentrations. The relative contribution of predictor variables for explaining index variation does, however, differ between sub-basins, resulting in the indices representing different aspects of the benthic community along the environmental gradient. This context-dependency is caused by inherent differences in benthic community characteristics between the sub-basins of the Baltic Sea, and how the communities are portrayed by the indices. An increased transparency of the importance of the different predictors for directing index values is needed for coherent classifications over broad environmental gradients, such as those occurring in large estuarine water bodies. Use of a weight of evidence table to combine multiple indicators would preserve transparency and be more likely to provide a robust assessment method that would detect seafloor degradation at an early stage.

Synechococcus are the most abundant and widely distributed picocyanobacteria in the ocean. The salt-wedge type of estuary possesses the complete horizontal and vertical gradient of salinity together with other physical and chemical parameters. In order to reveal whether such a complex environmental gradient harbors a high diversity of Synechococcus, we investigated the abundance, taxonomic composition and pigment genetic diversity of Synechococcus in surface and bottom waters across the salinity gradient in a salt-wedge estuary by flow cytometric analysis and pyrosequencing of the rpoC1 gene and cpcBA operon (encoding phycocyanin). Synechococcus were ubiquitously distributed in the studied region, with clear spatial variations both horizontally and vertically. The abundance and diversity of Synechococcus were low in the freshwater-dominated low salinity waters. By pyrosequencing of the rpoC1 gene, we have shown that with the increase of salinity, the dominant Synechococcus shifted from the freshwater Synechococcus to the combination of phylogenetic subcluster 5.2 and freshwater Synechococcus, and then the strictly marine subcluster 5.1 clade III. Besides, the composition of Synechococcus assemblage in the deep layer was markedly different from the surface in the stratified waters (dissimilarities: 40.32%-95.97%, SIMPER analysis). High abundance of clade III Synechococcus found in the brackish waters may revise our previous understanding that strains of this clade prefers oligotrophic environment. Our data also suggested that both the phylogenetic subcluster 5.3 Synechococcus, a lineage that was not well understood, and subcluster 5.1 clade I, a typical cold water lineage, were widely distributed in the bottom layer of the estuary. Clade I detected in the studied region was mainly contributed by subclade IG. Analysis of the cpcBA operon sequences revealed niche partitioning between type 1 and type 3 Synechococcus, with type 2 distributed broadly across the whole environmental gradients. Our results suggest that the salt wedge estuary provides various niches for different lineages of Synechococcus, making it an environment with high Synechococcus diversity compared with adjacent freshwater and shelf sea environments.

Viruses are the most abundant biological entities on Earth and play an important role in microbial community dynamics and biogeochemical cycling, yet their ecological characteristics in estuarine ecosystems are unclear. Here, virioplankton communities in a typical subtropical estuary, the Jiulong River estuary (JRE) in China, were investigated. The abundance of virioplankton ranged from 1.01 ± 0.05 × 107 to 1.62 ± 0.09 × 107 particles mL-1 in JRE, and the population size of viruses was correlated with temperature and nutrient levels. Three tailed viral morphotypes (myovirus, siphovirus and podovirus) were observed. Phylogenetic analysis showed that most of the g23 sequences in the JRE fell into three previously established groups (Marine, Paddy and Lake Groups) and two potential Estuary Groups. This demonstrates the co-existence of typical freshwater and marine T4-like myoviruses in the estuarine ecosystem, suggesting the movement of viruses and their hosts among biomes. Additionally, the spatial variation of g23 sequences suggests a geographic distribution pattern of T4-like myoviruses in the JRE, which might be shaped by the environmental gradient and/or their host distribution. These results provide valuable insights into the abundance, diversity and distribution patterns of virioplankton, as well as the factors influencing them, in subtropical estuarine ecosystems.

Regulations of estuarine environmental gradient on phytoplankton communities were evaluated about the Pearl River estuary during June 25 to July 2 of 2009 (wet season) and January 11 to 16 of 2010 (dry season). Downstream increase of salinity was 0.19 and 0.23 per km in wet and dry seasons; whereas the decrease of NO 3 - + NO 2 - content was 0.57 and 5.54 μmol L−1 per km, of PO 4 3 - was 0.013 and 0.014 μmol L−1 per km and of SiO 3 2 - was 1.05 and 2.89 μmol L−1 per km. Chl a biomass decreased from 11.3 to 1.94 μg L−1 and from 12.5 to 2.04 μg L−1 in wet and dry seasons, respectively; while total phytoplankton abundance decreased from 2.42 × 106 to 3.05 × 105 cells L−1 and from 1.59 × 106 to 0.32 × 105 cells L−1, with the dominating groups changing from diatoms and chlorophytes to solely diatoms. In particular, the nutrient PO 4 3 - was found to limit the growth of phytoplankton in wet season, but not in dry season. Our results also indicate that chlorophytes are more sensitive to salinity changes than other species in this estuary.

This study assessed the functional diversity (FD) of copepod communities along the environmental gradient of two tropical estuaries with different intensities of human impact - the environmentally protected "Mamanguape" and the urbanised "Paraiba". Different trait-based approaches were used: functional groups identification and description, and FD indices estimation. The results showed similar functional groups and functional indices between the two estuaries with some variability attributed to seasonality. Copepods in each estuary seemed to perform similar functions. Overall, biomass was more evenly distributed among groups, and mean total biomass and FD indices were slightly higher in the Mamanguape. Nevertheless, both estuaries presented comparable FD, indicating that environmental filters may be the main driver of species coexistence within systems. Results also pointed towards anthropogenic disturbance, despite the protection status of the Mamanguape.

Seagrass diversity and distribution in Southeast Asia have been mainly studied in backreef zones but have rarely been studied on intertidal mudflats in estuaries. This research article aims to study seagrass distribution (species diversity, shoot density, and biomass) and morphology (leaf length and leaf number per shoot) on intertidal mudflats in Brunei Bay, Borneo, to understand seagrass responses to water and sediment conditions along the environmental gradient in the estuary. In total, five seagrass species (Cymodocea rotundata, Halodule pinifolia, Halophila ovalis, Halophila minor, and Thalassia hemprichii) were found at five different intertidal sites, and the diversity and biomass were highest at the most upstream site. H. pinifolia was the only species found at all five sites, indicating that this species is the most tolerant of and adaptable to varying water and sediment conditions. H. pinifolia had the highest biomass and longest leaf length at the site with the highest silt and clay percentage (SC%) and organic matter content of sediment, where no other seagrass species were found, suggesting that H. pinifolia could efficiently acquire nutrients without interspecies competition. In contrast, H. ovalis and T. hemprichii were found at the upstream sites and preferred a relatively low SC% in sediment. H. minor was found only at the most downstream site, which had the lowest SC% and is likely to experience the strongest hydrodynamics and receive the least nutrients of all the sites. Based on this study, the seagrass response to environmental gradients in estuaries is proposed to be species-specific, which would have led to the unique seagrass distribution in Brunei Bay.

Bloom-forming species belonging to Microcystis aeruginosa complex (MAC) are the most commonly reported worldwide. MAC blooms are composed by toxic and non-toxic genotypes and the environmental conditions favouring the dominance of toxic genotypes are still a matter of debate among the scientific community. In this study, we evaluated the distribution of toxic MAC genotypes along a seasonal cycle and over an environmental gradient spanning 800km, from a eutrophic freshwater reservoir in Rio Uruguay to marine water in the outer limit of Rio de la Plata. Abundance of four mcy genes, mcyB, mcyD, mcyE and mcyJ was determined by qPCR and used as a proxy of abundance of toxic MAC genotypes. All the mcy genes were detected through the seasonal cycle at all sampling sites, being systematically higher in the freshwater reservoir and decreasing towards the marine site. The highest toxic genotype abundance was found during the austral summer months. According to generalized linear regressions and random forest models, temperature and conductivity were the most relevant explanatory variables. This suggests that although toxic MAC genotypes grow optimally in freshwater, they are also able to tolerate the high-salinity and low temperature conditions found in estuarine and marine waters. This ability to resist harsh conditions impose a health risk and a management challenge. To our knowledge, this is the first report addressing several mcy genes in a broad gradient that includes a wide array of different environmental conditions.

Marine microbial biogeography has been studied intensively; however few studies address community variation across temporal and spatial scales simultaneously so far. Here we present a yearlong study investigating the dynamics of the free-living and particle-attached bacterioplankton community across a 100 km transect in the German Bight reaching from the Elbe estuary towards the open North Sea. Community composition was assessed using automated ribosomal intergenic spacer analysis and linked to environmental parameters applying multivariate statistical techniques. Results suggest that the spatial variation of the bacterioplankton community is defined by hydrographic current conditions, which separate the inner German Bight from the open North Sea and lead to pronounced differences in the coastal and offshore bacterioplankton community. However this spatial variation is overwhelmed by a strong temporal variation which is triggered by temperature as the main driving force throughout the whole transect. Variation in the free-living community was predominantly driven by temperature, whereas the particle-attached community exhibited stronger spatial variation patterns.

The amphipod fauna was employed to investigate a bottom environmental gradient in the continental shelf adjacent to Santos Bay. The constant flow of less saline water from the estuarine complex of the Santos and São Vicente rivers besides the seasonal intrusion of the cold saline South Atlantic Central Water (SACW) bring a highly dynamic water regime to the area. Density, distribution, diversity and functional structure of the communities were studied on a depth gradient from 10 to 100 m on two cruises in contrasting seasons, winter 2005 and summer 2006. Twenty-one sediment samples were taken with a 0.09m² box corer. Temperature and salinity were measured at each station and an additional surface sediment sample was obtained with the box corer for granulometric and chemical analyses. Sixty species were collected on each survey and higher density values were found in summer. A priori one-way Analysis of Similarities (ANOSIM) indicated the existence of three different groups of amphipods related to the depth gradient: the Coastal group, the Mixed Zone group and the Deep Zone group. The Coastal Zone in both cruises was inhabited by a community presenting low diversity and density, besides high dominance of the infaunal tube-dweller Ampelisca paria; the area around 30 m presented the highest values of all the ecological indicators and the species showed several life styles; the outer area, situated between 50 and 100 m depth in the SACW domain, presented a community characterized by lower diversity and high biomass and density values. A season-depth ANOSIM showed the influence of depth and season for the Coastal and Mixed Zone groups whereas no seasonal difference was obtained for the Deep Zone group. The synergistic effect of the SACW and depth in the first place, followed by physical changes in substrate, seem to be the main factors controlling the fauna's distribution. In addition, the estuarine waters from Santos Bay apparently had no effect on the establishment of the environmental gradient observed on the adjacent shelf. Diversity, distribution, functional groups and trophic conditions of superficial sediments are discussed in the light of the main oceanographic processes present on the southern Brazilian shelf.A fauna de anfípodes foi empregada para investigar o gradiente ambiental na plataforma continental adjacente a Baía de Santos. A entrada constante de uma água menos salina proveniente do complexo estuarino de Santos e São Vicente e a intrusão sazonal da água fria e salina da Água Central do Atlântico Sul (ACAS) faz com que a área seja um ambiente hidrodinamicamente instável. Densidade, distribuição, diversidade e estrutura funcional das comunidades de anfípodes foram estudadas em um gradiente de profundidade entre 10 e 100 m, em dois cruzeiros realizados em épocas contrastantes, inverno (2005) e verão (2006). Vinte e uma amostras de sedimento foram coletadas com um box corer de 0,09 m². Temperatura e salinidade foram coletadas em cada estação com CTD e uma amostra adicional de sedimento superficial foi obtida com box corer para análises granulométricas e químicas. Sessenta espécies estiveram presentes em ambos os cruzeiros e altos valores de densidade foram encontrados especialmente no verão. A Análise de Similaridade (ANOSIM) realizada a priori indicou a existência de três grupos diferentes de anfípodes relacionados ao gradiente de profundidade: um grupo Costeiro, um grupo da Zona de Mistura e um grupo da Zona Profunda. A zona Costeira, em ambos os cruzeiros foi habitada por uma comunidade que apresenta baixa diversidade e densidade, além de alta dominância do tubícola infaunal Ampelisca paria; a área em torno de 30 m apresentou os maiores valores de todos os indicadores ecológicos e as espécies de anfípodes mostraram grande diversidade funcional; a área externa, entre 50 e 100 m de profundidade e no domínio da ACAS, apresentou uma comunidade caracterizada por baixa diversidade e altos valores de biomassa. A ANOSIM sazonal-profundidade mostrou diferença sazonal significativa para os grupos Costeiros e da Zona de Mistura, enquanto que para o grupo da Zona Profunda não foi encontrada diferença temporal significativa. O efeito sinérgico da ACAS e da profundidade em primeiro lugar, seguido pelas mudanças físicas do substrato, parecem ser os principais fatores controladores da distribuição da fauna. As águas estuarinas provenientes da Baía de Santos aparentemente não tiveram efeito no estabelecimento do gradiente ambiental observado na plataforma adjacente. Diversidade, distribuição dos grupos funcionais, condições tróficas dos sedimentos superficiais, além de outros aspectos ecológicos das comunidades são discutidos à luz dos processos oceanográficos dominantes na plataforma sudeste brasileira.

Using a combination of clone library and DGGE analyses, we assessed the diversity of coastal planktonic ciliates from the oligotrich and choreotrich clades across environmental gradients in Long Island Sound, USA. We sampled fresh and saline, as well as stratified and well-mixed, waters and found that these ciliate assemblages consist of a few common haplotypes and numerous rare haplotypes. Rarefaction estimates of total richness indicated that our survey did not cover the full diversity of the samples, suggesting that there may be many more haplotypes present in the Sound than predicted by previous microscopic surveys. We also found that haplotype richness varied on small spatial scales (

Macrofauna of sheltered and pocket beaches located in embayments, estuaries or landward of protective reefs has not been adequately assessed in beach ecology. In this setting, the concurrent role of large-scale morphodynamics and wave-exposure gradients in shaping biological patterns is still uncertain. To examine variations in community descriptors and the influence of physical factors on macrofauna, 12 sandy beaches on five islands within Sepetiba Bay (SE Brazil) were characterized in terms of beach morphodynamics and dimensions (length and width), such as geographical position relative to the bay mouth. A total of 80 species were collected and identified. Community descriptors of macrofauna responded to morphodynamics and exposure gradients. Increases in species richness, and abundance, from harsh reflective (coarse sands, steep slopes) to benign dissipative (fine sands, gentle slopes) beaches, and from the bay mouth (exposed beaches) towards the inner bay (sheltered beaches) were observed. Mollusks were the most abundant macrofaunal group, followed by crustaceans and polychaetes. Crustaceans dominated the beaches near the bay mouth, whereas mollusks were more abundant on the beaches farther from the bay mouth. Canonical correspondence analysis showed that the degree of exposure, distance from the bay mouth, beach index, and beach length and width significantly affected the macrofauna distribution and abundance, creating an environmental gradient along Sepetiba Bay. Differences in macrofauna composition among the beaches studied were associated with beach length and width. In this sense, spatial variation of macrofauna among beaches can be a function of intertidal area. These results indicate that community characteristics in the sandy beaches studied are affected by several physical characteristics, but also by other factors that are affected by coastal processes.

The spatial distribution of the subtidal crustacean assemblages of the Guadiana River estuary was studied previous to the building of the Alqueva Dam (the biggest dam in Europe). The differences between an estuarine and marine environment seem to be the main reason responsible for the composition and distribution of the crustaceans along the study zone. The Guadiana estuary has shown high number of species in comparison with other nearby estuaries and this richness seems justified by the scarce influence of pollutants (most of them have shown low or moderate values) and their hydrodynamic and granulometric characteristics (76 species were found, 39 in the estuarine area). A gradient of enrichment and structuring of the assemblages was shown from the upstream to the marine zones and a spatial segregation of species was found along this estuarine environmental gradient, e.g. the amphipod Corophium multisetosum and the isopod Cyathura carinata in the upper estuary; the amphipod Bathyporeia cf. pilosa and the isopods Lekanesphera levii and Saduriella losadoi in the middle estuary; the amphipod Melita hergensis in the mouth; and a high number of species in the marine area. Since the Alqueva Dam will reduce the river discharges and may cause changes in the abiotic characteristics such as granulometry of sediments or salinity, this study establishes a baseline against which a monitoring programme or follow-up studies could measure any significant effects of the dam or related impacts.

Estuarine beaches are low energy environments found along the coast in several protected places around the world, such as estuaries, bays or areas protected by submerged bars or coral reefs. Although common, these places have been poorly studied. Using a seine net, six beaches were sampled along an environmental gradient for 12 months. During this period, an increase of the dominant species following the increase in salinity and energy values was observed, whilst the opposite pattern occurred for species richness and abundance. Univariate and multivariate analyses showed spatial and temporal variations between beaches and months. Depth and marginal habitats appear to be more important factors than wave height and period, temperature, salinity and pH, which are normally used to describe fish habitat utilization patterns in beaches and estuaries. Nevertheless, specific sampling designs should be proposed to evaluate properly these questions.

This paper describes the composition, distribution and diets of demersal fishes collected from Spencer Gulf during a quantitative Gulf-wide trawl survey in February 2007. A total of 132 fish species from 65 families were collected from the 120 trawl shots. Degens leatherjacket, Thamnaconus degeni, was the most abundant species collected (627 ± 239 ha−1). This fish was also dominant in terms of biomass, and accounted for more than 40% of the total catch weight. Most other species (95%) had mean biomasses ranging from less than 1 to 515 g ha−1, and individually contributed less than 3% to the overall catch. Correlation analyses revealed a broad latitudinal gradient in fish abundance, biomass and richness. All three parameters generally increase towards the south of the Gulf, in association with increasing water depths and decreasing water temperatures. Multivariate cluster analyses confirmed the presence of a strong environmental gradient between the north and south of the Gulf, and highlight the pr...

In order to assess quantitatively the foraminiferal response to the relative distance from the estuary mouth (RDEM) in the estuarine systems from the southern Bay of Biscay, a foraminifera-based transfer function has been developed using two models based on a modern dataset of 88 samples and 41 species obtained from six estuaries in northern Spain. We consider the RDEM of the foraminiferal assemblages as a proxy for salinity. The relationship between observed and foraminifera-predicted RDEM illustrates the strong performance of the transfer function ( r jack 2 ranges from 0.73 to 0.76). These results indicate that precise reconstructions of former RDEM are possible. In fact, the transfer functions have relatively low root-mean-square errors of prediction (expressed as a percentage of the range of the modern environmental gradient sampled), ∼11%, which is comparable to other foraminifera-based transfer functions from the northern Atlantic Ocean. This is even more important considering that it is of a regional significance and that the sampling was performed randomly to minimize sample autocorrelation and the possible correlation among the different variables controlling the foraminiferal distribution (e.g., elevation and salinity).

We investigated phytoplankton biomass, assemblage structure and production along an environmental gradient to evaluate if chlorophyll-a (as proxy for biomass) and primary production peaked under conditions hypothesised to favour phytoplankton growth. During Spring 2003, a wide area from shallow estuarine waters to the shelf slope off the Rio de la Plata was sampled and routine measurements included CTD profiles, nutrients, chlorophyll-a, phytoplankton composition and abundance, seston and organic matter loads, downwelling light and, at selected stations, production versus irradiance experiments. Spatial differences in abiotic variables suggested distinct hydrographic zones that differed in phytoplankton biomass and productivity. Chlorophyll-a was highest under estuarine influence and peaked at low salinity when strong stratification developed in the outer estuary, and was minimum at the shelf break and slope. In that area, however, relatively high chlorophyll-a was associated to oceanographic fronts and to the occurrence of Sub Antarctic water within the photic depth range. Productivity was maximum in shallow waters, but biomass-specific productivity peaked at the outer shelf in oceanographic fronts or in upwelled Sub Antarctic waters. Over shelf and slope waters productivity and biomass were not tightly coupled, as indicated by situations of high biomass and low productivity (Station 9), low biomass and high productivity (Station 10), or both high biomass and productivity (Station 22). Ordination analysis of phytoplankton taxa suggested that assemblages changed gradually along the environmental gradient and correlated to abiotic variables defining geographic zones. Overall results were consistent with an interpretation that phytoplankton biomass and growth were modulated by light in estuarine and coastal waters, and by hydrographic processes on the continental shelf and slope.

The main objective of this contribution is to evaluate the environmental fidelity of dead diatom assemblages along two microtidal estuarine systems from southeastern Buenos Aires Province (Argentina). Living communities (inferred from counting protoplasm-containing cells) were compared to dead diatom assemblages through several fidelity metrics. Gradient analysis (by canonical correspondence analysis) was applied in order to assess the quantitative relationship between diatom assemblages and the environmental gradient. The presence of allochthonous components in diatom assemblages was assessed by analyzing the distribution of the main ecological groups. Results indicated a good agreement between living communities and total assemblages in surface sediments, as well as between total surface and subsurface assemblages from both estuaries. A high percentage of the variance in diatom assemblage composition was explained by the environmental gradient, particularly by sediment composition and salinity, indicating that taphonomic alterations play a minor role in structuring these assemblages. The good preservation of diatom thanatocoenoses in estuarine sediments makes them accurate indicators of the environmental conditions at the point of deposition, providing useful information for paleosalinity reconstructions in coastal settings.

Estuaries, lagoons and mudflat habitats represent a crucial biodiversity component in coastal waters and may act as vital nurseries and shelters for the juvenile stages of many commercial fish species. A study of the spatial distribution of inshore fish fauna around the shallow coastal habitats of North Bull Island (Dublin Bay, Ireland) was carried out during summer and autumn of 2005, in order to characterise the fish community present therein. Four stations were examined, situated along a putative environmental gradient, between the mudflat and the open sea shore. Stations were surveyed at both high and low tide and sampling was repeated weekly for eight weeks, spanning over four spring and four neap tidal events. A total of 17 fish species were caught, belonging to 13 families. The community was largely dominated by the lesser sandeel (Ammodytes tobianus) and the common goby (Pomatoschistus microps). Ordination techniques were used to generate hypotheses as to the general patterns in the fish community; Shannon–Wiener index was employed to estimate spatial, temporal and tidal trends in diversity; and analysis of variance (ANOVA) was employed to test for the influence of time of the year, habitat, tidal phase and tidal state on the spatial distribution of fishes. Results reveal that time of the year and habitat variation across the environmental gradient are the major factors in determining fish community structure. The influence of tidal dynamics seem to have a lesser impact on the overall community, but can significantly and variably affect the distribution of individual species.

The northwestern Pacific, characterized by unique tectonic and hydrological settings, has greatly intrigued marine phylogeographers. However, current studies mostly focus on the influence of Pleistocene isolation of sea basins in population structure of species in the region, leaving the contribution of other factors (such as freshwater outflow and environmental gradients) largely unexploited. Here we shed light on the question by investigating phylogeography of the surf clamMactra chinensisin the East China Sea (ECS). Genetic information was acquired from 501 specimens collected from its main distribution in the region, represented by mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I (COI) and nine polymorphic microsatellite loci. A shallow and star-like phylogeny was revealed for all COI haplotypes, indicating the origin of populations from a single refugium. Although no divergent lineages existed, population subdivision was detected in both data sets. The most striking pattern was the significant differentiation between populations north and south of a biogeographic boundary—the Changjiang Estuary, suggesting a barrier effect of the freshwater outflow to gene flow. For the northern group, substructure was revealed by COI result as one southernmost population was significant different from other ones. Clear latitude gradations in allele frequencies were revealed by microsatellite analyses, likely influenced by environmental gradient factors such as temperature. Our results demonstrate that genetic subdivision can arise for populations within the ECS despite they have a single origin, and multiple mechanisms including Changjiang River outflow, environmental gradient factors and life-history traits may act in combination in the process.

BACKGROUND: Aerobic ammonia oxidation plays a key role in the nitrogen cycle, and the diversity of the responsible microorganisms is regulated by environmental factors. Abundance and composition of ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) and ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB) were investigated in the surface waters along an environmental gradient of the Yong River in Ningbo, East China. Water samples were collected from three pelagic zones: (1) freshwaters in the urban canals of Ningbo, (2) brackish waters in the downstream Yong River, and (3) coastal marine water of Hangzhou Bay. Shifts in activity and diversity of the ammonia-oxidizing microorganisms occurred simultaneously with changes in environmental factors, among which salinity and the availabilities of ammonium and oxygen. The AOA abundance was always higher than that of AOB and was related to the ammonia oxidation activity. The ratios of AOA/AOB in the brackish and marine waters were significantly higher than those found in freshwaters. Both AOA and AOB showed similar community compositions in brackish and marine waters, but only 31 and 35% similarity, respectively, between these waters and the urban inland freshwaters. Most of AOA-amoA sequences from freshwater were affiliated with sequences obtained from terrestrial environments and those collected from brackish and coastal areas were ubiquitous in marine, coastal, and terrestrial ecosystems. All AOB from freshwaters belonged to Nitrosomonas, and the AOB from brackish and marine waters mainly belonged to Nitrosospira.

Distribution and diversity of nrfA gene encoding dissimilatory nitrite reduction to ammonium (DNRA) in the sediments of the Colne River, North Essex, UK, were investigated. Sequencing cloned nrfA fragments amplified from environmental DNA enabled structure analysis of the bacterial community responsible for this pathway. The DNA was extracted from the sediment samples at different depths from the estuary ranging from freshwater to seawater regions, and amplified using specific PCR primer pairs targeting for the nrfA gene. Analysis of the nrfA clones showed two distinct clusters corresponding to their origins, namely, divided into the stable sites (marine and freshwater regions) and the unstable sites (brackish water region), where the tidal rise and fall constantly disturbs the environmental conditions. In addition, the nrfA clones from the deeper layer of the sediment formed a more homogenous community than those from the surface layer of the sediment. This may be due to more isolated and anaerobic condi...

Fish and macrocrustacean assemblage structure was analyzed along an estuarine gradient at Mad Island Marsh (MIM), Matagorda Bay, TX, during March 1998–August 1999. Eight estuarine-dependent fish species accounted for 94% of the individual fishes collected, and three species accounted for 96% of macrocrustacean abundance. Consistent with evidence from other Gulf of Mexico estuarine studies, species richness and abundance were highest during late spring and summer, and lowest during winter and early spring. Sites near the bay supported the most individuals and species. Associations between fish abundance and environmental variables were examined with canonical correspondence analysis. The dominant gradient was associated with water depth and distance from the bay. The secondary gradient reflected seasonal variation and was associated with temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, and vegetation cover. At the scales examined, estuarine biota responded to seasonal variation more than spatial variation. Estuarine-dependent species dominated the fauna and were common throughout the open waters of the shallow lake during winter– early spring when water temperature and salinity were low and dissolved oxygen high. During summer–early fall, sub-optimal environmental conditions (high temperature, low DO) in upper reaches accounted for strong spatial variation in assemblage composition. Small estuarine-resident fishes and the blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) were common in warm, shallow, vegetated inland sites during summer–fall. Estuarine-dependent species were common at deeper, more saline locations near the bay during this period. During summer, freshwater species, such as gizzard shad (Dorosoma cepedianum) and gars (Lepisosteus spp.), were positively associated with water depth and proximity to the bay. The distribution and abundance of fishes in MIM appear to result from the combined effects of endogenous, seasonal patterns of reproduction and migration operating on large spatial scales, and speciesspecific response to local environmental variation. 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Sea-level reconstruction from biological indicators in saltmarsh sediments requires an understanding of the modern ecology of the organisms concerned. Previous work suggested that testate amoebae are a potential new group of organisms to use for sea-level reconstruction, especially combined with diatoms and foraminifera. This paper analyses data from three saltmarshes on the Taf estuary, South Wales, the River Erme, Devon, and at Brancaster, Norfolk (UK) to (i) test for the presence and zonation of testate amoebae in relation to elevation; (ii) examine the similarity of zonation patterns between marshes; and (iii) explore the relationship between assemblage composition and a wider range of environmental variables. In addition we provide an update on the identification of testate amoebae on saltmarshes. Our results confirm that at all sites the primary environmental gradient is tidal inundation. Major changes in taxa along the tidal gradient are similar except for the lowest elevations, where different taxa become dominant at different sites. Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) shows that assemblage composition is also strongly related to other variables, independent of the tidal position. Salinity, particle size and organic matter content are particularly important, and there is a statistically significant geographical effect on assemblages. Relationships between sea-level and assemblage composition are often stronger for individual sites, suggesting that local data sets should be used for quantitative sea-level reconstructions. However, the combined data set would provide more robust estimates of past sea-level change from fossil data. Other environmental variables explain as much of the variability in species assemblages as tidal parameters and should be considered more often in sea-level reconstructions based on microfossil indicators. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Two spatial surveys of the macrobenthos of an estuarine intertidal area, the Oosterschelde in the southwestern part of The Netherlands, were conducted in different years. In the period between the surveys changes in the hydrodynamics of the estuary took place as a result of the construction of a storm-surge barrier. The works reduced the tidal volume in the basin and as a consequence the altitude of the tidal flats decreased by approximately 0.1 to 0.2 m. Considerable differences in species densities were found between the two surveys, but these large differences could not be explained by changes in the `spatial' environmental variables (such as altitude) that were taken into account in a direct gradient analysis. Unknown and `only-to-time-related' (e.g. weather-related) factors had considerably influenced species abundance. This implies that the impact of the works on the macrobenthos could not be evaluated on the basis of observed species densities in the before- and after-the-works surveys. Generally, it implies that even if the levels of future `spatial' environmental variables are known, direct gradient analysis based on a single survey cannot be used for prediction of future densities in absolute terms in such strongly fluctuating communities. Yet, the gradient analyses for the two years revealed rather similar estimates of the major environmental gradients. The same was true for the parameters that described the relative change in species densities in response to a change in the environmental gradient levels. Hence the most appropriate way of evaluating the changes that have occurred in the benthic community as a result of the works was in terms of the observed changes in the `spatial' environmental gradient levels. The levels of the first environmental gradient, which was strongly related to the sediment structure, did not change between years. Levels of the second gradient, which could be interpreted as a tidal zone gradient, decreased. This suggests that the works particularly affected taxa that are strongly related to this second gradient, such as Corophium living in the upper tidal areas and Nephthys living in the lower tidal zone.

As part of the Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Programin 1991, the field efficacy of six ’research‘ indicators wasexamined in the estuarine systems of the Gulf of Mexico. Theutility of these indicators was tested by examining thoseresponses at both ends of multiple environmental gradients;namely, under minimally impacted conditions (reference) andheavily impacted conditions (by hypoxia, industrialdischarges, agricultural runoff). In addition, the geographiceffects of location (east and west of the Mississippi River)were examined. Numbers and frequencies of pathologies,abundance of splenic macrophage aggregates, and vertebralabnormalities showed response patterns that suggest widerfield testing along full gradients rather than simply theextremes of the gradient are warranted. Selected bloodproteins showed some promise but logistical constraints inestuarine environments may limit its utility. Concentrationsof selected organic compounds in bile showed no differences inthis study between references and contaminated sites.Molecular bioindicators are discussed with regard to theirpotential utility as indicators of ecosystem conditions. Ofthese potential indicators, the use of vitellogenin assays asa measure of reproductive impairment and frequency of shelldisease in selected crustaceans as an indicator ofimmunological aberrations deserve further examination.

Short-Term Variation in the Abundance of Vibrio vulnificus and Vibrio parahaemolyticus in a Tidal Estuary We examined the influence of tide stage and depth on the abundance of Vibrio vulnificus and Vibrio parahaemolyticus in the Chesapeake Bay. Samples were collected every 3 hours following predicted tides at a fixed location over 3 separate days and Vibrio concentrations analyzed by qPCR. Multi-way Analysis of Variance suggest that sampling day explains the vast majority of the variance in abundance for both species (p

The occurrence and distribution of macrozoobenthos in estuaries are strongly related to sediment grain-size characteristics. However, statistical prediction of the distribution of benthic populations as a response to a single environmental gradient has proven to be difficult, because the focal variable may set upper limits to the abundance, but other (partly uncorrelated) variables may cause considerable deviation from the maximum. A multi-quantile regression approach is better suited to characterize biota–environment relationships than a single (average or boundary) estimation, because it shows the variation in responses and quantifies the relative importance of other unmeasured factors. Here, a univariate application of non-linear quantile regression is proposed to account for heteroskedasticity and non-linearity in the biological response to sediment grain size. The analysis was applied to a large macrozoobenthic dataset from the SW Delta area (The Netherlands) to compare the relationships between sediment granulometry and macrozoobenthos in 2 neighboring but differing temperate coastal ecosystems (Oosterschelde and Westerschelde). Preference of individual species for grain size was consistent between both systems, although in general, a slightly higher median grain size (ca. +60% in grain diameter) was preferred in the Oosterschelde than in the Westerschelde. The major difference in the community was, however, that mud-preferring species dominated the assemblage in the Westerschelde, and sand-preferring species dominated the Oosterschelde. Although the prevalence of muddy and sandy sediments in both systems is similar, in the Westerschelde, strong hydrodynamic stress is correlated with sandy habitats, causing impoverishment of assemblages at sandy sites. In the Oosterschelde, sandy sediments are usually associated with much more benign conditions and have the richest species assemblage.

Macrobenthic intertidal assemblages from five Atlantic Iberian estuaries were analyzed to develop an estuarine index. An R-mode analysis revealed a close association between the isopod Cyathura carinata, the polychaete Hediste diversicolor and the bivalve Scrobicularia plana. Although these species are abundant in all the estuaries considered, they tend to be absent from sites at the marine and freshwater ends of the environmental gradient. Three different ways of calculating the estuarine index are proposed. The index is comprised in the interval [0, 1] and was constructed using relative abundances rather than absolute abundances. Transformation of the raw data helped improve the performance of the index. A non-parametric statistical test is proposed for application to the estuarine index to find sites with the same values after a significant omnibus test. The index appears to be a good proxy for recognizing estuarine limits by use of indicator species.

The densities of each age class of adult (>l yr old) mussels Mytilus edulis were measured in autumn and spring over 8 yr on each of 12 intertidal mussel beds in the Exe estuary, southwest England. The possibility that density-dependent changes in adult numbers in each of 9 yearly age classes occurred over the summer and winter periods was explored directly on individual beds and indirectly by combining data from all beds. There was direct evidence of density-dependent changes in both seasons in some age classes on some beds. The indirect tests suggested, however, that density-dependence was much more widespread over beds, age classes and seasons than had been suggested by the direct tests. The critical density above which density-dependent losses occurred, and to which the density-dependence tended to return numbers irrespective of the abundance of the mussels at the start of summer or winter, varied considerably among beds in several age classes. These critical densities were correlated most closely with the time for which a bed was exposed over low tide but were also influenced by the distance of a bed from the estuary mouth and the softness of its substrate. Between them, these 3 variables defined the environmental gradient of intertidal mussels in the Exe estuary. The residual, density-independent variations in the changes in numbers of several age classes of adult mussels about the density-dependent relationships were correlated with weather variables (temperature, gales and rainfall) in several cases and in both seasons. Surprisingly, there was evidence of widespread density-dependent immigration of adult mussels, especially in summer and in the younger age classes. While the passive movement by adult mussels in storms is well established, it is not known whether active movements occur in these older mussels. Although much of the density-dependence was due to mortality, immigration was therefore often an important component of the densitydependent relationships detected on individual beds. However, immigration on some beds countered losses on others. Perhaps because of this, density-dependence was often masked, and thus not detected, at the estuary scale in all but the youngest mussels whose estuary-wide abundance was dominated by 2 large mussel beds, where their numbers tended to CO-vary. Thus, strong densitydependence at one scale may not be detected at a higher scale.

Paleoecological reconstructions of Holocene sea-level changes in Argentinean coastal regions were based mainly on ecological data gathered from other regions, as there was a lack of information on modern estuarine diatom distributions. The aim of the present work was to assess the spatial variation of diatom assemblages in two representative estuaries of Argentina in order to gather ecological information for paleoecological reconstructions in the region. The two selected estuaries have different geomorphologic features and salinity regimes: Mar Chiquita Lagoon is shallow, which prevents the development of a stable salinity gradient as it occurs in the Quequen Grande River. Surface sediment samples were taken from selected stations representative of the environmental gradient from the inlet to the inner reaches of both estuaries. Cluster analysis defined three diatom zones at Mar Chiquita: marine/brackish assemblages dominate the inlet (zone I), where salinity, tidal range and current speed are higher. The brackish/freshwater tychoplankton Staurosira construens var. venter and Staurosirella pinnata dominate the inner lagoon (zone II), where environmental conditions are very variable and concentrations of suspended sediments are higher. Brackish/freshwater euryhaline diatoms dominate the headwaters (zone III). On the other hand, the Quequen Grande River was divided into three diatom zones: coastal taxa are distributed at the inlet (zone I), while the middle estuary (zone II) is dominated by brackish/freshwater euryhaline taxa. At the upper estuary region (zone III), freshwater diatoms dominate, and the halophobous Nitzschia denticula increased in abundance values. Diatom distributions were most closely related to the salinity gradient at Quequen Grande River than at Mar Chiquita Lagoon. Fossil data of a sequence from Mar Chiquita Lagoon (Las Gallinas Creek) were compared to the modern data set in order to search for analogies between fossil and modern diatom assemblages. DCA results showed that fossil diatom assemblages have modern counterparts. Most diatom assemblages of Las Gallinas Creek fall within Mar Chiquita zone III, representing a shallow brackish/freshwater environment, with low salinity fluctuations (~1–9‰) and no tidal influence. Therefore, our modern diatom data provide useful analogs to interpret paleoenvironments in the region.

Temporal trends of exergy, specific exergy, biodiversity (species richness and heterogeneity) and an indicator of stress of the macrofaunal assemblage (W statistics) were compared along a gradient of disturbance in the Valli di Comacchio. Data were gathered at four reference sites, characterized by different disturbance levels, and spanned to a six‐year period (1996–2002). Biodiversity parameters fluctuated through space and time as commonly observed in estuarine and lagoonal habitats; higher biodiversity values and less pronounced fluctuations were detected at the minimally disturbed site, while lower values of these indicators and wider fluctuations were observed at the other sites along the disturbance gradient. Exergy and specific exergy were higher at the minimally disturbed site, but all temporal trends exhibited a zigzag pattern, being characterized both by very high and very low values. A different result was obtained when comparing the trends of specific exergy with disturbance expressed by the W...

The importance of abiotic factors in explaining patterns of estuarine benthic macrofaunal community structure was examined on a broad spatial scale across south-eastern Australia. Macrofaunal communities were surveyed using an Ekman grab and a modified epibenthic sled (dredge) at each sampling site: data for 24 environmental variables were also collected. Twenty-eight estuaries were sampled on a single occasion during late summer at three stratified locations within each estuary (upper, mid and lower). Macrofaunal community composition was best explained by a common environmental gradient summarising variation in both salinity and longitude. Hence, although the distribution of macrofaunal taxa can be clearly linked to changes in salinity, the geographical position of the sites along an east–west axis, rather than a generalised down-stream gradient, appears to best explain the data. This association was primarily linked to broad-scale changes in estuarine morphology across the geographical range of this survey. A sediment-based environmental gradient among grab samples, but not dredge samples, reflected the largely infaunal nature of the grab samples. In general, the present survey did not support the classification of estuarine assemblages on the basis of a range of physical parameters but, instead, emphasised the continuity of estuarine benthic macrofaunal community structure on a broad spatial scale.

From September 1976 to September 1983, we examined how studies of the 12 individual mussel beds in the Exe estuary could enhance our understanding of the dynamics of the whole intertidal mussel Mytilus edulis L. population. The 12 beds varied considerably in their distance up-river from the estuary mouth, muddiness of their substrata and level on the shore, the three main features defining the environmental gradient for mussels in the Exe. Since adult (> 1-year old) densities over the whole estuary were already known to be strongly regulated during the first year, we focused on spat (0-year) mussels

A one year study was carried out to investigate the variations in benthic community structure along an environmental gradient of salinity and bottom substratum in a sub-tropical estuary in Hong Kong. The community was dominated by the gastropod Turritella terebra, and to a lesser extent, by the gastropod Murex trapa and the crab Portunus hastatoides. The total number of animals, biomass as well as the domanance of T. terebra in the community decreased, while species diversity increased along a gradient of increasing salinity and decreasing siltclay fraction of the sediment.

The present study investigated the larval fish dispersal along an estuarine-ocean gradient to explore connectivity between ocean and estuaries. During spring 2009, a combined ocean-estuarine survey was conducted along the Lima estuarine salinity gradient and in two transects off the adjacent coast (northwestern Iberian Peninsula), until the 100 m isobaths. Salinity, total particulate matter, particulate organic matter, total dissolved carbon, and dissolved organic carbon reached higher values at the ocean, and chlorophyll a and nutrients increased at the estuary. From the total 56 taxa identified, 14 were present along the gradient, including estuarine species (ES), marine stragglers (MS), and migrants (MM). Canonical correspondence analysis showed that species were separated along the gradient according to their ecological functional classification. MM associated with high salinity were separated from ES correlated with lower salinities and high chlorophyll a concentrations of inner estuary. Flounder (Platichthys flesus) showed a typical spatial gradient of MM, with abundance increasing from the ocean towards inner estuary. The dispersal of larvae along the Lima estuarine-ocean gradient was indicative of connectivity between habitats, emphasizing the need to consider this feature in management plans, mainly for species exploited by commercial fisheries. © 2017, Canadian Science Publishing. All rights reserved. The authors thank all those involved in the field surveys and sampling sorting and laboratory procedures from both IPMA and the Hydrobiology Laboratory at Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar (ICBAS) – University of Porto. Particular acknowledgements are due to A.A. Bordalo from the Hydrobiology Laboratory. The authors also thank E. Amorim for her help guidance to produce the GIS maps. SR was funded by FCT through a postdoctoral fellowship (SFRH/BPD/102721/2014). This research was partially supported by the Strategic Funding UID/Multi/04423/ 2013 through national funds provided by Foundation for Science and Technology and European Regional Development Fund, in the framework of the program PT2020. Surveying at sea was undertaken during an IPMA PELAGO acoustics campaign funded via the National Biological Sampling Programme (PNAB/EU DCF — Data Collection Framework).