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There is little empirical evidence that convinces the effectiveness of distributed leadership in contemporary educational research. Thus, many distinguished scholars suggest its' statistical examination. Considering this need, the primary purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of principals' distributed leadership practices on students' learning outcomes at Technical and Vocational Education Training schools in Eritrea. The study was conducted based on quantitative design and applied structural equation modelling. A sample of six hundred and three students was employed. The researcher developed the structural equation model to test a model that hypothesized the relationship between the major variables using path analysis. The study results demonstrate that the principals' distributed leadership practice has a direct and significant (0.883, p<0.001) effect on students' learning outcomes keeping other things constant. The strongest predictor of students' learning outcomes was capacity building, given it has the largest path coefficient ([beta]=0.346). Moreover, findings show gender disparity among the respondents and in terms of turnout rate; nevertheless, it was not statistically significant (p<0.001). One of the study's contributions is that it developed and assessed the validity of the principals' distributed leadership practice scale for Eritrea's TVET schools through CFA model. The study offered basic evidence that distributed type of leadership is a significant predictor of learning outcomes by exploring six factors of leadership practices, which shows a promising area for practice and future studies.

Collectively, Ethiopians and Eritreans represent one of the largest African immigrant groups in the US, yet no research to date exists on families from these communities raising autistic children. The purpose of our study was to examine the experiences of Ethiopian and Eritrean families of autistic children including experiences (1) receiving the autism diagnosis and interacting with healthcare providers, (2) obtaining services and supports for children (including satisfaction with services and barriers to care), and (3) accessing services and supports for caregivers and families (including needs and barriers to care). Ethiopian and Eritrean parents (N = 51) raising autistic children in the US completed an online survey. Parents reported limited prior knowledge of autism within their communities and had varied experiences with healthcare providers through the diagnostic process. They endorsed barriers to accessing care for their child and family supports (such as provider shortages and cost of services), service needs, and dissatisfaction with school-based and behavioral supports. Many parents reported a negative impact on workforce participation in order to meet their child's needs. Parents identified needs that would benefit their autistic children and families, such as accessible support groups to obtain relevant information. To our knowledge, this is the first systematic study exploring the experiences of Ethiopian and Eritrean families raising autistic children in the US. We discuss implications of our findings and recommendations for culturally responsive care.

The aim of the study reported on here was to explore the effects of principals' distributed leadership (DL) practices on learners' learning achievement as mediated by teachers' commitment. In the study we employed survey data with a sample size of 603 learners from 8 technical and vocational education training schools in Eritrea. The proposed model of this study was tested through multiple regression analyses and structural equation modelling using teachers' commitment as a mediator. The findings of this study show that distributed leadership practices have a positive and significant effect on teachers' commitment and an indirect effect on learners' learning achievement. The results also show that teachers' commitment has a partial mediation effect. Moreover, the variance test analysis reveals the effect of distributed type of leadership practices by school principal determined by school type, size, location, and ownership.

This paper argues that access to quality education and skills development programs for refugees, returnees and Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) is not only one of the fundamental human rights that states and non-state actors have obligations to fulfill; it is also an integral part of sustainable development efforts which will have significant contributions to socio-economic transformation in host countries, countries of origin and countries of destinations in the event that refugees become migrant, which is sometimes the case. The Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) region, consisting of eight member states, namely, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan and Uganda, host more than 13 million forcibly displaced people. This results from protracted and devastating conflicts; drought and famine and other natural or man-made calamities. Within the IGAD region, Somalia, South Sudan and Sudan produce 80 to 90% of displacement due to protracted civil wars. However, almost all the member states have refugees, IDPs or migrants sheltered in their territories. Access to higher education among refugees, returnees and IDPs is very low at only 3% compared to 36% globally. The figure for Africa is still dismal, at less than 1%; and the same holds true for the IGAD region. In an effort to address this major challenge facing these population categories, the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) convened a high level regional (Ministerial Conference) on refugee education held in Djibouti, 12-14 December 2017. That Conference adopted what is now called the Djibouti declaration and Plan of Action for refugee education in the IGAD region. The major purpose of this paper was is to outline the refugee situations in general and the state of higher education in the region in particular.

The issues of poor academic outcomes, dismissal, high attrition, and dropout rates among college students have long concerned for many educators and college communities. Several scholars have posited that these problems can be addressed through the development of emotional intelligence and increased student engagement. Considering these problems, the present study aimed to assess the efficacy of emotional intelligence and student engagement in improving academic performance. The sample of the study consisted of 119 undergraduate students selected using the convenience sampling technique. Self-report Emotional Intelligence Test and Student Engagement Scale were adopted to measure emotional intelligence and student engagement respectively. Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA) served as a measurement of academic achievement in the present study. Results from regression analyses revealed that certain components of emotional intelligence and academic engagement demonstrated a significant prediction effect on academic performance. From demographics, students' programs of study showed a significant relationship with academic achievement. The present findings may provide directions for the college communities in fostering student engagement and emotional intelligence, thereby improving academic achievement of their students. The study also discusses limitations and future research directions.

This study focuses on three essential concepts -- collaboration, action, and research. It was initiated by three former teacher educators (TEs) at Asmara Community College of Education (ACCE), Eritrea (now defunct), and data was drawn from their written accounts and rigorous reflective discussions. It illuminates the lines of development while attempting to improve practices, the tensions this created among individuals, collective agencies, and institutional transformations. It reveals "realities" about the perpetual and unpredictable challenges the TEs encountered and the outcome of the actions they attempted to execute. Along the way, they uncovered evidence on why and how they could enrich their professional values when they come together and collaborate in exploring the essence of their practices. The findings reveal that TEs who systematize their practices through collaborative action research (CAR) can significantly develop their professional effectiveness. They have established that TEs should "collaborate, act, and engage" in research to develop enduring professional identities which can adapt to changing educational situations.

Purpose: The article unpacks potentials of and resistance towards facilitating meetings between refugee and non-refugee youth in global citizenship education. Design/methodology/approach: The analyses are based on participant observation in a school-based intervention in three locations, developed on the principles of design-based research [DBR]. Findings: The article exposes both how meetings between students could be deeply educational and how teachers prevent meaningful interaction between students out of concern for refugee students. Research limitations/implications: More research is needed on how students care for themselves and others in transformational learning contexts. Practical implications: Privileged teachers' concern for retraumatising students can veil unconscious protection of the privileged self against students' trauma and should therefore be subject to critical reflection.

This paper seeks to contribute a fresh perspective meant to enrich the current limited discourse on teacher retention and attrition in Sub Saharan Africa particularly in Eritrea. Factors leading to teachers' retention and attrition in middle and secondary schools in Eritrea are discussed. Results of an in-depth semi-structured interview with thirteen teachers in five purposefully selected schools show that low remuneration, poor school leadership, school-home distance, and placement without preference & interest are factors for teacher attrition. Conversely, meagre alternative employment opportunities, love of the profession, and love of the school children play a crucial role in teachers' persistence in their profession. Although the study was carried out among few teachers and few schools, the findings present valuable discoveries useful for policymakers, school leaders, and stakeholders in the struggle for retaining quality teachers in the schools.

This study explores the link between principals' leadership practices and learning achievements from a distributed leadership perspective, using semi-structured interviews with TVET supervisors, middle leaders, and teachers. A detailed discussion on how school principals actually practised distributed leadership (DL) and how these practices affected learning achievement is reported. Moreover, a comparative analysis was made between schools with high and low learning achievers. We found that the main features of distributed leadership practices implemented by the principals were inspiration of a shared vision, enabling followers to lead, motivating followers, participative decision-making, capacity building, and authority sharing. Besides, the study discovered that schools with high learning achievement tended to have a better attainment of distributed leadership practices. This study contributes to understanding the nature of distributed leadership and its influence.

The principles of inclusive education largely accepted by governments of different countries require differentiated classroom instruction to meet the diverse needs of individual students. Despite this, teachers have differing experiences and understandings about implementing differentiated instruction (DI) and heterogeneous classrooms. This narrative study aimed at exploring the meanings of DI in the Eritrean context, where teachers are not explicitly familiar with the concept, although their teaching practices reflect some level of differentiation. The research data consisted of 17 narrative interviews with Eritrean mathematics and science teachers. The results of the narrative analysis showed that the teachers constructed five meanings of DI in their narratives: as a caring orientation, as a flexible pedagogic approach, as a self-reflective process, as a failed attempt and as a demanding approach. The majority of the narratives were found to produce positive meanings of DI, and the teachers constructed strong agency towards carrying out DI. These examples of sophisticated DI practices in the teachers' positive narratives could be utilised to implement DI, even in situations where teachers have limited resources and training and in contexts with large class sizes.

Child-rearing practices can be challenging for migrants who often require socio-cultural and emotional adjustments. This article discusses parenting in exile with a focus on the experiences of highly educated Eritrean migrants in the UK. Qualitative data are collected from eighteen highly educated Eritrean migrants selected through purposive and snowball sampling from the UK. The findings indicate that highly educated Eritrea migrants aspire to avoid harmful traditional ways of treating children and all the repercussions associated with them. Moreover, with the help of their educational qualifications, my participants support their children in social and academic activities and guide them to cultivate bi-cultural coping skills. However, the migrant parents face challenges related to lack of parenting experiences and familiar support systems. The article contributes to the advancement of migration knowledge by adding new perspectives to the nexus of migration and child-raising.

Refugee adolescents have experiences that affect their abilities to acculturate successfully into a new society. This study highlights how the transition into a new culture might affect adolescent refugees' abilities to form meaningful relationships. It was intended to be a catalyst for empowering this underserved population, to equip school counselors and researchers in the education and clinical fields to develop programs and interventions to support this population. Study results indicated a multitude of experiences from refugee adolescents' perspectives. This article also discusses implications for school counselors and counselor educators.

The interaction of education and digital technology today is one of the key characteristics of development. Many industrialized nations place a high value on digital learning practices and have created several national strategic plans to encourage and support the use of digital practices in education. In its reform and development of education, Eritrea has also made the strategic decision to assist educational modernization using a clear digital policy. Eritrea has made significant advancements in the creation of technology infrastructure, the use of digital resources, innovative teaching methods, and technology-supported educational management to date. However, there are still issues with execution brought on by teachers' preparation, public spending, and human resources. The study collected useful information from n = 141 active student-teachers participating in post-graduate diploma (PGD) practice at Asmara College of Education utilizing both qualitative and quantitative research methodologies. Results have been reported using special and original quotes together with both descriptive and inferential statistics. The study's conclusions show that teachers' enthusiasm for using ICT in the classroom will have a favorable effect on their ability to teach, assisting them in becoming aware of the modernized world and adjusting to its expectations. The knowledge of the teachers has a big impact on digital activities. Additionally, the research has revealed that Eritrean school instructors have little knowledge of using ICT in teaching and learning to improve student performance. The perception of teachers' preparation for digital competency is positive, even though a noteworthy problem is being highlighted that prevents teaching and learning from succeeding. They have a very high and favorable opinion of how the use of technology has affected their ability to teach.

This article is a self-study of intentional practices embedded in reflective teaching in a teacher education program in Eritrea. The educator-researcher (author) was concerned with engaging learner-teachers in interactive teaching practices in general and reflective learning practices in particular. By employing self-study methods and tools, the study examines proactive practices and processes in a postgraduate teacher education course. The author implemented facilitation approaches of collaborative reflections, supporting reflective inquiry on learning practices, explicit modelling, and consistent feedback. Framed within the conceptual notion of the tension of practices, the study explores the author's facilitation experiences during a 16-week or semester-long course. The findings revealed tensions in attending to and improving learner-teachers' educational needs, synchronizing verbal and written reflective competencies, and language issues in learning to be more thoughtful. The self-study provides practical perspectives on how teacher educators may learn to approach their work while supporting reflective practices in challenging teacher education contexts and beyond.

This article explores situations for improving the collaborative commitments of a group of learner-teachers undertaking action research projects about their own learning processes in a teacher education setting. The encounters are recounted based on the 16-week experience of educators (the first two authors) while facilitating, guiding, and supporting an action research course offered at a college of education for senior undergraduate learner-teachers in Eritrea in the academic year 2018-2019. We have employed the theory of "practice architectures" to identify conditions that constituted our facilitation practices. We analysed transcriptions of our practice-based series of discussions and course artefacts, including diary entries, learner-teachers' action research reports, and interactions on the WhatsApp group page created for the course. Problematizing processes of learning, proactive guidance approaches, and modelling collaborative initiatives were among the facilitation practices that we argue have significantly influenced the collaborative commitments of the learners in their action research projects. We also discuss the implications of our facilitation practices that sought to model the qualitatively loaded terms that constitute the course, i.e. collaboration, action, and research. Some implications for teacher education practices are highlighted.

Strengthening the identities of teacher educators is critical to quality teacher education and implementing change in the education sector. This study examines the professional identities of Eritrean teacher educators and how these identities can be strengthened through collaborative professional practice in a challenging context currently under reform. The focus is on the professional capacity building activities at the College of Education in Eritrea, which were implemented in collaboration with Finnish education partners. The paper reports on findings from an action-research informed study of a semester-long series of professional development seminars and an interview study with individual teacher educators. The qualitative content analyses of seminar participants' drawings, evaluations and interview data focus on: (1) identifying critical issues that support the formation of teacher educator identities, and (2) understanding how collaborative practice at the institutional level can support the strengthening of professional identities. The findings point to potential ways of creating critical colleagueship and more purposeful, contextually relevant approaches for professional development in teacher education. The need for strengthening the identities of teacher educators' through bottom-up processes and in collaboration with international partners is highlighted.

Sub-Saharan Africa secondary school science curricula recognise language as the most important communication tool for learners' biology learning outcomes. Despite this prominent goal, learners' scientific literacy at secondary school appears to be insufficient to cope with classroom teaching and learning of biology. This paper presents a review of literature regarding the way English as the language of instruction and inquiry-based learning strategies affect biology learning in Sub-Saharan Africa secondary schools. The scope of the review included journal articles, books and book chapters published in the period from 2005 to 2020 on the English language of instruction in biology education in Sub-Saharan Africa. We established criteria for first article searches indexed in Scopus, African Journals Online, the Education Resources Information Center, Web of Science and Psych Info as recognised index systems for science education. We considered studies related to the understanding of learners' language backgrounds, language-in-education policy and pedagogical language strategies (practice) that mediate learning. In this case, 53 studies were identified after removing redundancies; 27 studies satisfied the inclusion criteria when screened by key words and abstract and reviewed for eligibility; and only nine were selected after evaluating the full texts. The review analysis suggests that there is a gap in the corpus of literature on what and how pedagogical language strategies should be utilised to support meaningful learning of biology in multilingual settings. Poor learners' academic achievement and conceptual engagement in biology at secondary school level were the main effects reported by the reviewed literature. Less is still known about the effect of the use of inquiry-based learning strategies on learners' conceptual engagement in multilingual biology classrooms. We recommend formulating a clear policy articulation on the use of bilingual instructions in teaching and learning of biology at the secondary school level; assessing teacher and learner performance over pedagogical language strategies; and evaluating the contribution of IBL strategies in addressing language barriers in biology learning for higher order thinking skills in Sub-Saharan Africa secondary schools.

Israeli teachers who teach Eritrean and Sudanese asylum-seeking children find themselves struggling to accommodate these children against the background of a polarized environment. The strategies teachers employ to cope with this tension are shaped by the broader socio-political context and the hostilities directed toward African asylum seekers in Israel. Drawing on in-depth interviews with 22 teachers in different schools in Israel, we observed that in the absence of any official educational policy for the integration, teachers employ strategies of avoidance and de-politicization of asylum seeking. We argue that when it comes to the controversies around asylum seekers, Israeli teachers adopt strategies that are similar to the ways they have coped with the long-term Israel-Palestinian conflict. Based on this observation, the paper suggests the local socio-political context is crucial in understanding teachers' attitudes, practices and responses towards asylum-seekers.

For refugees, education provides life-changing opportunities, including tools for effective social integration. This study explores higher education (HE) participation among refugee-background African youth in Australia. Drawing on policy review, national HE statistics and population census data, and using theoretical insights from critical sociology and a capability approach to social justice, the article (a) maps trends of HE participation, and (b) sheds light on policy silences and alternatives. The findings show that only one in ten refugee-background African youth (aged 18-30) transitioned to HE within the first five years of their arrival. The group also lagged well behind the general population in terms of undergraduate course completion. In light of these concerns, the article calls for "expanding the educational capabilities" of the refugee youth, specifically highlighting the need for policy recognition, early intervention, and substantive opportunities that can be converted into valued outcomes.

This research explores effects of lesson study on science teacher learning and classroom practice in three purposively selected middle schools of Eritrea. An extended teacher development program that combined training workshops with actual practising of lesson study contributed in enhancing conceptual understanding and pedagogical skills of teachers. The participants valued lesson study as worthwhile teacher development strategy because it brought teachers together and hence significantly contributed in minimising teacher isolation. The finding of this research provides new insights into teacher professional development in Eritrea concerning implementation of lesson study as professional development process for science teaching.

There is dearth of research in happiness among Africans, because of no indigenous scale among the plethora of scales used in measuring happiness. Consequently, an indigenous happiness scale was conceived using a three stage method (stage 1 = 48, stage 2 = 408, stage 3 = 1468 participants). A sequential mixed method approach and cross sectional design were used for data collection and to validate the proposed happiness scale. The results indicated that the model fit was acceptable and confirmed one factor solution for the 23 items (SRMR = 0.065; PRATIO = 0.923; PNFI = 0.602; and PCFI = 0.615). The analyses further indicated that the scale showed a satisfactory internal consistency ([alpha] = 0.92). The scale had both convergent and discriminant validities with coefficients of 0.38 and -0.22 respectively. Therefore, the scale would serve as a "proxy" measure for happiness among the indigenous African population.

A qualitative study investigating the experiences and effects on practice of Eritrean healthcare professionals studying for a postgraduate degree by distance learning is reported. The programme is delivered via online learning together with in-country teaching visits. Two focus group discussions with 19 postgraduate students were conducted. Online learning is challenging due to intermittent connectivity and power cuts, but students have developed their own solutions to overcoming these difficulties. Thematic analysis generated four themes. Students who are embedded within the Eritrean context are experiencing a process of self-development, both academic and personal. This self-growth is facilitating the development of resilience and confidence building, enabling students to have a positive influence on health service provision, thus impacting on the Eritrean context. Students are developing life-long skills that will support the continuing development of healthcare systems in Eritrea long after they have completed their distance learning programme.

The research tried to examine the role of school principal in facilitating change in teaching-learning process. Moreover, it has focused on the main roles of principal in implementing LCIP. The research employed both quantitative and qualitative methods. The study used a random sample of 62 teachers from a purposefully selected five junior schools in Asmara to ensure the representation of the population with different socioeconomic background. The instrument for collecting data was a questionnaire. Descriptive analysis was utilized based on frequency, percentage, mean and standard deviation to analyze the data collected. For the open ended questions, narrative analysis was used to examine the responses of the teachers. The results of the study revealed that teachers believe that the principals in junior schools in Asmara have been facilitating implementation of the change introduced by the Ministry of Education in LCIP. They believe that principals have been striving on facilitating the change through exerting the proper leadership style, provision and mobilization of resources, playing supervisory role, enhancing the provision of school based training and development programs and creating appropriate communication channels.

With an increasing immigrant population in the United States, higher education institutions and community organizations offer a variety of adult English as a second language (ESL) courses. Given that English language learners (ELLs) come from various backgrounds, they face unique challenges. Thus, it is pivotal that adult ESL instructors effectively address the needs of diverse ELLs in their classrooms. This qualitative study was guided by Critical Language and Race Theory introduced by Crump (2014) to explore how adult ESL instructors promote culturally responsive pedagogy. Participants of this study were seven adult ESL instructors teaching at a community college in the southeastern United States. Data were collected through face-to-face, semistructured interviews, journal entries, and classroom observations. This study contributes to the body of research that highlights the importance of promoting culturally responsive pedagogy in order to create an inclusive language learning environment.

Immigration has been increasing at a significant rate over the past decades. The labour market integration of immigrants--especially of young refugees and asylum seekers--is a major challenge for not only the host country but also the immigrants themselves. This study is based on narrative career counselling, specifically the "journey of life" narrative metaphor; it is aimed at exploring the barriers and resources that 14 refugees and asylum seekers (ages 19-25) enrolled in a state integration programme in the French-speaking part of Switzerland perceive in their quest for labour market integration. The results show that language proficiency is the main barrier and that they can rely on a host of resources to achieve sustainable labour market integration.

We have good reason to predict that a warming climate will produce more conflict and violence. A growing contingent of researchers has been examining the relationship in recent years, and they've found that hotter temperatures and reduced rainfall are linked to increases in conflict at all scales, from interpersonal violence to war. Children are especially vulnerable to conflict, Richard Akresh writes. In addition to directly exposing children to violence and trauma, conflict can tear families apart, displace whole populations, interrupt schooling, cut off access to health care or food, and eliminate the jobs that families depend on for a living. Children caught in a war zone may suffer physical injuries, malnutrition, developmental delays, and psychological damage, with effects on their physical health, mental health, and education that can persist into adulthood and constrict their ability to make a living. Moreover, those effects can spill over to the next generation and beyond, damaging the affected countries' ability to develop human capital. The likelihood that rates of conflict will increase on a hotter planet, then, poses a serious threat to children's wellbeing--especially in poorer countries, which already see the most wars and other conflicts. Unfortunately, Akresh writes, we still poorly understand the mechanisms that link climate to conflict, and we have almost no evidence to tell us which types of policies could best mitigate the effects of climate change-related violence on children.

This paper is a case study of an English Learner (EL) summer enrichment program that supported English language fluency and comprehension of middle and high school students, many of whom were refugees, immigrants, or newcomers from U.S. territories. In this case, we share how a program can successfully provide an equitable education for newcomer students, whether they are newly settled refugees, unaccompanied youth, asylum seekers or other types of immigrants from around the world. Focusing on how a program for newcomers was designed and implemented to ensure inclusive and asset-based practices, we discuss the findings from document analysis and qualitative data collected at a New England district. We found that education leaders created rich learning environments through inclusive and asset-based curricula, community partnerships, and creative enrichment programming. The Summer Academy's leaders and educators met newly arriving students where they were in their formal education and prepared them to achieve their educational goals while being newly arrived in the United States. This study provides insight into practices that promote refugee and newcomer students' education and shares implications for the practices of school and district leaders who serve diverse groups of students who are learning English.

This paper uses the case of Eritrea to explore tensions between education and militarisation as forms of everyday state-making and examine how teachers constitute the state in the process of navigating these tensions. In 2003 Eritrea merged educational and military institutions. Teachers responded to the new policies by alternately joining in with students' tacit resistance to them, and engaging in strict, often violent, measures to reclaim control and exert 'teacher sovereignty' over schools. Teachers' intermingling of resistant humour and foot-dragging with violence and authoritarianism suggests that teachers, as agents of the state in Eritrea and elsewhere, may resist militarisation yet also reproduce authoritarian violence. While this policy, which effectively merged military and educational institutions was unique to Eritrea, the disjuncture between education and militarisation exposed by this case illuminates the complex role that schools and teachers play in state-making and nuances our understanding of education, the state and armed conflict.

A case study comprising of 30 instructors of higher education institutions in Eritrea, as study sample, has been carried out for investigating their readiness to integrate Technology-aided Pedagogy and Content (TPC) in teaching-learning process. Study participants were selected from Eritrea Institute of Technology (EIT) by using a blind-fold method of random sampling technique. Both qualitative and quantitative data collection methods were used. Focus group interviews were conducted in different sessions complying with ethical considerations. To collect descriptive data, semantic differential 7-point scale for bipolar adjectives was used to assess participants' attitudinal readiness and simple scale has been used to understand their level of readiness based on technology characteristics towards TPC integration in higher education. The study findings have indicated that the whole education community is well aware of the technology gadgets available around for teaching-learning support and facilitation. Almost all respondents have showed their favorable attitudinal readiness through positive value rating in a seven-point semantic differential scale of bipolar adjectives. All respondents are well aware about the technologies for teaching-learning process, and half of them have shown their level of readiness at trialability and observability of results as per the technological characteristics followed by 8 respondents at divisibility level closer to TPC integration.

This article examines how young African immigrant men in Southern Ontario cope with the dominant racial identity at school in an effort to improve their academic performance and access postsecondary education (PSE). Critical race theory in education is employed to explain how the young men distance themselves from stereotypes about Black masculinity by regulating their own behaviour and differentiating themselves from their Caribbean immigrant peers. Sixty-seven young men who had immigrated to Southern Ontario from several African countries over the last 10 years were interviewed individually and in focus groups for the study. The findings suggest that the research participants adopted a model minority status within an educational system that clearly embodies racist and systemically oppressive frameworks.

Background: Education in Eritrea is a fundamental right of every person. Therefore, ensuring equal and equitable educational opportunities for every citizen is essential for upward mobility. However, enrolment in areas inhabited by the nomadic groups is far less from the national average. To boost enrolment among the nomads and to meet the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) the government of Eritrea along with donor partners in 2007 introduced non-formal Complementary Elementary Education (CEE) targeted at out-of-school children aged 9-14 years. Nevertheless, no study was conducted since the program has started whether the children are mainstreamed to formal middle school primary education. Objective: The study was aimed to assess the enrollment and transition rate of CEE, examine challenges of transition and to identify possible alternatives to facilitate transition of pupils to formal middle school education in Habero Sub-Zone. Materials and methods: Mixed method design along with the use of both qualitative and quantitative approaches was employed. Semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect information on socio-demographic characteristics of pupils and CEE teachers, challenges and alternatives of transition to middle school. Moreover, key informant interview was carried out from the middle school director and sub-zone education officer. The sample size included were 150 pupils, 18 teachers, 1 middle school director and 1 sub-zone education officer. The data was analyzed using frequencies and percentages. Qualitative data were transcribed and coded and then analyzed thematically. Results: The study findings indicate that the transition rate of pupils from the CEE centers to formal middle school education was high (83%). However, the enrollment of pupils transited from CEE centers in the available middle schools of the sub-zone was low (35%). Conclusion: The low enrollment in middle school was contributed by distance of middle school, early marriage and economic status of the community. Finally, based on these findings, it is recommended that CEE centers at the very distance should develop to formal middle school. Establishment of at least one boarding school in Habero sub-zone to accommodate the most disadvantaged nomadic children would ease economic burden of the pupils. Further, government authorities, national unions and religious bodies should play important role in sensitizing the community about benefits of education.

This article examines Eritrean school leaders' administrative functions in promoting social justice and equity among students. A detailed discussion of the challenges they encounter in their daily activities and its effect on the promotion of social justice and equity is also presented. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 10 randomly selected school principals, followed by an inductive analysis based on the transcribed interview data. Three major approaches to social justice practices commonly adopted by the principals were discovered: promoting a collaborative learning culture, individual support, and working with communities and local administrations. Major pitfalls in the school system which negatively affect social equity practices were observed, including teachers' low levels of professionalism, poor commitment and awareness; the tendency towards a highly bureaucratic and delayed distribution of educational resources; low levels of parental involvement; and conservative cultural and traditional attitudes.

Previous research demonstrates that social and interpersonal factors, more than academic preparation, affect decisions by under-represented students to stay in or to leave STEM fields. Yet, much of the theorizing about STEM learning in higher education begins with conceptual and epistemological dimensions. We make the case for a new theoretical framework, a "learning humanities," that begins with relationships. From this relational starting point, we locate STEM knowers as actors in relationships who become "answerable" for their STEM knowledge and take "wise actions" from this place. We then use this framework to analyze learning for STEM undergraduates involved in the STUDIO: Build Our World program, an afterschool mentoring program for low-income, immigrant, and refugee youth of color. Drawing on narrative and ethnographic analyses of data from 12 focal mentors, we found that mentors developed 3 focal practices identified by Edwards, "relational expertise," "common knowledge," and "relational agency" through their efforts to create the best possible program for youth. This built mentors' sense of answerability and a capacity for wise action within and outside of STUDIO. We argue that this theoretical stance provides new ways to conceptualize the nature, purpose, and outcomes of STEM learning for historically non-dominant STEM undergraduates' learning.

The arrival of substantial cohorts of English language learners from Africa with little, no or severely interrupted schooling is requiring new pedagogic responses from teachers in Australia and other Western countries of refugee re-settlement. If the students are to have optimal educational and life chances, it is crucial for them to acquire resources for conceptually deep and critical literacy tasks while still learning basic reading and writing skills. This requires teachers to extend their pedagogic repertoires: subject area teachers must teach language and literacy alongside content; high school teachers must teach what has been thought of as primary school curriculum. The aim of this article is to describe some teacher responses to these challenges. Data are drawn from a study involving an intensive language school and three high schools, and also from the author's experience as a homework tutor for refugees. Stand-alone basic skills programs are described, as are modifications of long-established ESL programs. It is also argued that teachers need to find ways of linking with the conceptual knowledge of students who arrive with content area backgrounds different from others in their class. Everyday life experiences prior to, and after re-settlement in the West, are rich with potential in this regard.

Using semi-structured interview and review of documents, this study analyzes the pedagogical practices and students' experiences in Eritrean Higher Education Institutions (HEIs). The study indicated that pedagogical practices are affected by instructors' pedagogical skills and perceptions, and the teaching-learning environment. Moreover, the pedagogical practices that instructors use determine the pedagogical experiences of students and shape their socio-economic and political perspectives. Despite its small scale, the study provides a more robust explanation of the connections between instructors' pedagogical practices and experiences of students. It can also be applied to other countries, especially developing countries with similar circumstances. The study implies that skilled instructors employ interactive pedagogy connecting theory and practice, even in a large class size. Hence, instructors need to be trained, well equipped and motivated to improve their teaching skills and attitudes.

Across the world, the distance mode of education is gaining momentum. It is a system in which schools, universities and other educational agencies offer instruction wholly or partly by mail. Eritrea is a newly independent country in Africa and is facing many challenges, particularly in its education sector. It does not have many educational institutions at tertiary level. Thus, distance learning is a valuable option for this country. The distance education program could promote higher education by providing access to large numbers of urban people and disadvantaged groups in rural and remote areas, including working people, fighters, women and other adults. This paper discusses various issues related to the establishment and development of distance education. It presents the distance education programs so far undertaken in the country and explores the potential for distance education in Eritrea. (Contains 1 table and 4 notes.)

All over the world, distance mode of education is gaining a momentum and becoming more popular than conventional education. It is a system in which schools, universities and other educational agencies offer instruction wholly or partly by mail. Eritrea is a newly independent country in Africa is been facing many challenges particularly in its education sector. It did not have more educational institutions at tertiary level. Thus the distance learning is the best option for this country. An attempt is made in this paper to discuss various problems related to the establishment and development of distance education. It also provides the distance education programmes so far undertaken in the country with concluding remarks.

There is currently a renaissance of interest in indigenous knowledges, after a long period of neglect and disdain by Western scientific and academic establishments. However, educational institutions have not made some of the more fundamental changes required to successfully integrate indigenous knowledges. Interventions and programs in ECD similarly tend to be based on an accepted body of knowledge built on Western experience and practice. The ECDVU takes a very different approach to capacity building. Its curriculum is built around the idea of co-construction of knowledge, requiring the participation of all in the creation and dissemination of content. The initial results of this process of generating curriculum within concrete cultural contexts are encouraging. The participants in the ECDVU program recognize the value of indigenous knowledges and are actively pursuing the documentation and incorporation of these knowledges into their research and program activities in the field of ECD. This article presents arguments in favour of incorporating indigenous knowledge into the ECD field and highlights the work of a number of ECDVU participants contributing to this area. (Contains 4 notes.)

The study is part of a larger project concerned with addressing the problem that Eritrean science teachers face in their attempt to implement a new learner-centred science curriculum. Specifically, the study attempted to determine the effects of the use of an Argumentation-Based Instructional Model (ABIM) on 25 pre-service science teachers' understanding of argumentation and its role in science teaching. Responses to an open-ended Learner-Centred Argumentation Instruction Questionnaire and interview responses were analysed qualitatively using open coding and the generation of categories. The Contiguity Argumentation Theory categories were also used to describe the type of cognitive shifts made by the group of pre-service teachers. The findings show that as a result of their experience with ABIM, the participants: (a) made noticeable cognitive shifts from seeing argumentation as a debate to win a case to a form of dialogue for reaching consensus; (b) became aware of the difference between everyday and scientific types of argumentation; and (c) came to recognize the important role that argumentation could play in science education.

This paper analyses the controversial discourses around the significance of the Arabic language in Eritrea. It challenges the arguments of the government and some scholars, who claim that the Arabic language is alien to Eritrean society. They argue that it was introduced as an official language under British rule and is only spoken by the Rashaida minority and by a small educated elite. By contrast, this paper demonstrates that Arabic has served as the established lingua franca among the Eritrean Muslims and as the administrative language and medium of education for centuries. The main focus of the paper is a critique of the government's post-independence language policy, which replaced Arabic as the medium of instruction by mother tongue education under the purported aim of establishing the equality of all nine Eritrean languages. I argue that the promotion of this policy has political implications and that one of its purposes is to alienate the Muslim community from the use of the Arabic language as a marker of their common identity. The article is written from a sociological perspective and draws on numerous conversations with mother tongue school teachers, students and parents, and on participant observation of the public debate.

In an attempt to describe the historical origins of multilingual education in Eritrea, Horn of Africa, this paper looks at how missionaries, European colonisers, successive Ethiopian rules in Eritrea and the independence movements that fought Ethiopia defined ethnic, religious and linguistic differences of communities in the country. These definitions of differences are then related to broader political aspirations of these forces and their specific education policies. Italian and Ethiopian rules, chiefly concerned with control and pacification of the territory, imposed Italian and Amharic languages, while missionaries, the British Military Administration and the 1950s government of autonomous Eritrea, despite their divergent interests, laid some ground for pluralistic language policies in the country. But it is the Eritrean People's Liberation Front, predecessor to the current government, sceptical of the policies of all these forces and charging them as divisive, that sought to de-politicise diversity by embracing it. As a direct result of this stance on diversity, and as a result of other contributing factors such as the Marxist ideology of the organisation, Eritrea now has a multilingual education policy that uses the country's nine languages in schools. The application of language rights perspectives to the policy raises a number of questions (e.g. on policy implementation) that require further attention.