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The epithelial Na + channel (ENaC) is essential for Na + /K + homeostasis and blood pressure control. Its activity is regulated by proteases in rodents. To gain more information on proteolytic ENaC regulation in humans, we tested the hypotheses that (1) human kidney α- and γ-ENaC subunits are furin-cleaved, glycosylated, and altered by medication that change plasma aldosterone; (2) prostasin-cleaved γ-ENaC is increased in proteinuria, and (3) cleaved ENaC moieties prevail at the membranes and in urinary extracellular vesicles (uEVs). We developed three monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) targeting (1) the neo-epitope generated after furin cleavage in γ-ENaC (mAb-furin); (2) the intact prostasin cleavage-site in γ-ENaC (mAb-intactRKRK), and (3) the α-ENaC subunit (mAb-alpha). Nephrectomy tissue and uEVs were used for immunoblotting and -histochemistry. In human kidney tissue, mAb-furin detected a ≈ 65-70 kDa protein, compatible with furin-cleaved γ-ENaC; mAb-intactRKRK detected full-length (≈ 90-100 kDa) and furin-cleaved (≈ 70-75 kDa) γ-ENaC. mAb-alpha detected a ≈ 50 kDa protein compatible with furin-cleaved α-subunit. Furin-cleaved γ-ENaC was detected predominantly within membrane fractions and deglycosylation shifted full-length γ-ENaC migration ~ 20 kDa. While γ-ENaC uEV levels were below the detection limit, α-ENaC migrated as intact (≈ 75 kDa) and furin-cleaved (≈ 50 kDa) in uEVs. Kidney levels of α- and γ-ENaC in diuretic- (n = 3) and ACE-inhibitor-treated (n = 4) patients were not different from controls (n = 4). Proteinuric patients (n = 6) displayed similar level of furin-cleaved γ-ENaC as controls (n = 4). Cleaved α-ENaC abundance was significantly lower in the kidneys from proteinuria patients. In conclusion, the study demonstrates ENaC cleavage as an event in human kidney that could contribute to physiological regulation and pathophysiological activation of ENaC.

Prostasin (CAP1/PRSS8) is a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored serine protease that is essential for epithelial development and overall survival in mice. Prostasin is regulated primarily by the transmembrane serine protease inhibitor, hepatocyte growth factor activator inhibitor (HAI)-2, and loss of HAI-2 function leads to early embryonic lethality in mice due to an unregulated prostasin activity. We have recently reported that critical in vivo functions of prostasin can be performed by proteolytically-inactive or zymogen-locked variants of the protease. Here we show that the zymogen form of prostasin does not bind to HAI-2 and, as a result, loss of HAI-2 does not affect prenatal development and survival of mice expressing only zymogen-locked variant of prostasin (Prss8 R44Q). Indeed, HAI-2-deficient mice homozygous for R44Q mutation (Spint2-/-;Prss8R44Q/R44Q) are born in the expected numbers and do not exhibit any obvious developmental abnormality at birth. However, postnatal growth in these mice is severely impaired and they all die within 4 to 7 days after birth due to a critical failure in the development of small and large intestines, characterized by a widespread villous atrophy, tufted villi, near-complete loss of mucin-producing goblet cells, loss of colonic crypt structure, and bleeding into the intestinal lumen. Intestines of Spint2-/-;Prss8R44Q/R44Q mice showed altered expression of epithelial junctional proteins, including reduced levels of EpCAM, E-cadherin, occludin, claudin-1 and -7, as well as an increased level of claudin-4, indicating that the loss of HAI-2 compromises intestinal epithelial barrier function. Our data indicate that the loss of HAI-2 in Prss8R44Q/R44Q mice leads to development of progressive intestinal failure that at both histological and molecular level bears a striking resemblance to human congenital tufting enteropathy, and may provide important clues for understanding and treating this debilitating human disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The membrane-bound serine proteases prostasin and matriptase and the Kunitz-type protease inhibitors HAI-1 and HAI-2 are all expressed in human skin and may form a tightly regulated proteolysis network, contributing to skin pathophysiology. Evidence from other systems, however, suggests that the relationship between matriptase and prostasin and between the proteases and the inhibitors can be context-dependent. In this study the in vivo zymogen activation and protease inhibition status of matriptase and prostasin were investigated in the human skin. Immunohistochemistry detected high levels of activated prostasin in the granular layer, but only low levels of activated matriptase restricted to the basal layer. Immunoblot analysis of foreskin lysates confirmed this in vivo zymogen activation status and further revealed that HAI-1 but not HAI-2 is the prominent inhibitor for prostasin and matriptase in skin. The zymogen activation status and location of the proteases does not support a close functional relation between matriptase and prostasin in the human skin. The limited role for HAI-2 in the inhibition of matriptase and prostasin is the result of its primarily intracellular localization in basal and spinous layer keratinocytes, which probably prevents the Kunitz inhibitor from interacting with active prostasin or matriptase. In contrast, the cell surface expression of HAI-1 in all viable epidermal layers renders it an effective regulator for matriptase and prostasin. Collectively, our study suggests the importance of tissue distribution and subcellular localization in the functional relationship between proteases and protease inhibitors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The membrane-associated serine proteases matriptase and prostasin are believed to function in close partnership. Their zymogen activation has been reported to be tightly coupled, either as a matriptase-initiated proteolytic cascade or through a mutually dependent mechanism involving the formation of a reciprocal zymogen activation complex. Here we show that this putative relationship may not apply in the context of human matriptase and prostasin. First, the tightly coupled proteolytic cascade between matriptase and prostasin might not occur when modest matriptase activation is induced by sphingosine 1-phospahte in human mammary epithelial cells. Second, prostasin is not required and/or involved in matriptase autoactivation because matriptase can undergo zymogen activation in cells that do not endogenously express prostasin. Third, matriptase is not required for and/or involved in prostasin activation, since activated prostasin can be detected in cells expressing no endogenous matriptase. Finally, matriptase and prostasin both undergo zymogen activation through an apparently un-coupled mechanism in cells endogenously expressing both proteases, such as in Caco-2 cells. In these human enterocytes, matriptase is detected primarily in the zymogen form and prostasin predominantly as the activated form, either in complexes with protease inhibitors or as the free active form. The negligible levels of prostasin zymogen with high levels of matriptase zymogen suggests that the reciprocal zymogen activation complex is likely not the mechanism for matriptase zymogen activation. Furthermore, high level prostasin activation still occurs in Caco-2 variants with reduced or absent matriptase expression, indicating that matriptase is not required and/or involved in prostasin zymogen activation. Collectively, these data suggest that any functional relationship between natural endogenous human matriptase and prostasin does not occur at the level of zymogen activation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Significant proteolysis may occur during milk synthesis and secretion, as evidenced by the presence of protease-protease inhibitor complex containing the activated form of the type 2 transmembrane serine protease matriptase and the transmembrane Kunitz-type serine protease inhibitor HAI-1. In order to identify other proteolysis events that may occur during lactation, human milk was analyzed for species containing HAI-1 and HAI-2 which is closely related to HAI-1. In addition to the previously demonstrated matriptase-HAI-1 complex, HAI-1 was also detected in complex with prostasin, a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored serine protease. HAI-2 was also detected in complexes, the majority of which appear to be part of higher-order complexes, which do not bind to ionic exchange columns or immunoaffinity columns, suggesting that HAI-2 and its target proteases may be incorporated into special protein structures during lactation. The small proportion HAI-2 species that could be purified contain matriptase or prostasin. Human mammary epithelial cells are the likely cellular sources for these HAI-1 and HAI-2 complexes with matriptase and prostasin given that these protease-inhibitor complexes with the exception of prostasin-HAI-2 complex were detected in milk-derived mammary epithelial cells. The presence of these protease-inhibitor complexes in human milk provides in vivo evidence that the proteolytic activity of matriptase and prostasin are significantly elevated at least during lactation, and possibly contribute to the process of lactation, and that they are under tight control by HAI-1 and HAI-2. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses a study focusing on the sodium channel Na(x) and its role in regulating epithelial sodium homeostasis. Topics discussed include the response of the epidermis to disturbances in barrier function, the up-regulation of prostasin by Na(x), and the increased downstream messenger RNA (mRNA) synthesis of inflammatory mediators.

The development of eutherian mammalian embryos is critically dependent on the selective bi-directional transport of molecules across the placenta. Here, we uncover two independent and partially redundant protease signaling pathways that include the membrane-anchored serine proteases, matriptase and prostasin, and the G protein-coupled receptor PAR-2 that mediate the establishment of a functional feto-maternal barrier. Mice with a combined matriptase and PAR-2 deficiency do not survive to term and the survival of matriptase-deficient mice heterozygous for PAR-2 is severely diminished. Embryos with the combined loss of PAR-2 and matriptase or PAR-2 and the matriptase partner protease, prostasin, uniformly die on or before embryonic day 14.5. Despite the extensive co-localization of matriptase, prostasin, and PAR-2 in embryonic epithelia, the overall macroscopic and histological analysis of the double-deficient embryos did not reveal any obvious developmental abnormalities. In agreement with this, the conditional deletion of matriptase from the embryo proper did not affect the prenatal development or survival of PAR-2-deficient mice, indicating that the critical redundant functions of matriptase/prostasin and PAR-2 are limited to extraembryonic tissues. Indeed, placentas of the double-deficient animals showed decreased vascularization, and the ability of placental epithelium to establish a functional feto-maternal barrier was severely diminished. Interestingly, molecular analysis suggested that the barrier defect was associated with a selective deficiency in the expression of the tight junction protein, claudin-1. Our results reveal unexpected complementary roles of matriptase-prostasin- and PAR-2-dependent proteolytic signaling in the establishment of placental epithelial barrier function and overall embryonic survival. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The membrane-anchored serine protease prostasin (CAP1/ PRSS8) is part of a cell surface proteolytic cascade that is essential for epithelial barrier formation and homeostasis. Here, we report the surprising finding that prostasin executes these functions independent of its own enzymatic activity. Prostasin null (Prss8-/-)mice lack barrier formation and display fatal postnatal dehydration. In sharp contrast,mice homozygous for a point mutation in the Prss8 gene, which causes the substitution of the active site serine within the catalytic histidine-aspartate-serine triad with alanine and renders prostasin catalytically inactive (Prss8Cat-/Cat- mice), develop barrier function and are healthy when followed for up to 20 weeks. This striking difference could not be explained by genetic modifiers or by maternal effects, as these divergent phenotypes were displayed by Prss8-/- and Prss8Cat-/Cat- mice born within the same litter. Furthermore, Prss8Cat-/Cat- mice were able to regenerate epidermal covering following cutaneous wounding. This study provides the first demonstration that essential in vivo functions of prostasin are executed by a non-enzymatic activity of this uniquemembrane-anchored serine protease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We hypothesized that the serine protease prostasin is necessary for differentiation of a high-resistance renal collecting duct epithelium governed by glucocorticoid. Postnatal rat kidney and adult human kidney was used to study the expression and localization of prostasin. The murine collecting duct cell line (M-1) was cultured in Snapwell inserts to investigate the significance of prostasin for the development of transepithelial electrical resistance (TER). In the cortex and medulla of rat kidney, prostasin mRNA and protein increased significantly between birth and weaning (day 21) and was detected in collecting ducts. Immunoreactive prostasin was associated with collecting ducts and loops of Henle in human kidney. In rat, adrenalectomy at day 10 had no effect on prostasin mRNA level in kidney at day 20. Cultured M-1 cells exhibited parallel increases in prostasin mRNA, protein and TER 5 days after seeding. Apical addition of the serine protease inhibitor aprotinin to M-1 cell cultures inhibited development of TER and led to aberrant localization of E-cadherin. This effect was mimicked by the protease inhibitor nafamostat. Apical addition of phospholipase C to cleave glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchors released prostasin to the medium and attenuated development of TER with time of culture. Disruption of lipid rafts by methyl-β-cyclodextrin attenuated development of TER in M-1 cells. Omission of dexamethasone impaired development of TER in M-1 cells, while prostasin protein abundance and E-cadherin distribution did not change. Apical, GPI-anchored, lipid raft-associated serine protease activity, compatible with prostasin, is necessary for the development of a high-resistance collecting duct epithelium. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Proteases activate the epithelia sodium channel (ENaC) by cleaving the large extracellular domains of the α- and γ-subunits and releasing peptides with inhibitory properties. Furin and prostasin activate mouse ENaC by cleaving the γ-subunit at sites flanking a 43 residue inhibitory tract (γE144-K186) To determine whether there is a minimal inhibitory region within this 43 residue tract, we generated serial deletions in the inhibitory tract of the γ-subunit in channels resistant to cleavage by furin and prostasin. We round that partial or complete deletion of a short segment in the 3,-subunit, R158-N171, enhanced channel activity. Synthetic peptides overlapping this segment in the γ-subunit further identified a key 11-mer tract. R158-F168 (RFLNLIPLLVF), which inhibited wild- type ENaC expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes, and endogenous channels in mpkCCD cells and human airway epithelia. Further studies with amino acid-substituted peptides defined residues that are required for inhibition in this key 11-mer tract. The presence of the native γ inhibitory tract in ENaC weakened the intrinsic binding constant of the 11-mer peptide inhibitor, suggesting that the 7 inhibitory tract and the 11-mer peptide interact at overlapping sites within the channel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mutations in SPINT2 encoding the epithelial serine protease inhibitor hepatocyte growth factor activator inhibitor-2 (HAI-2) are associated with congenital tufting enteropathy. However, the functions of HAI-2 in vivo are poorly understood. Here we used tamoxifen-induced Cre-LoxP recombination in mice to ablate Spint2. Mice lacking Spint2 died within 6 days after initiating tamoxifen treatment and showed severe epithelial damage in the whole intestinal tracts, and, to a lesser extent, the extrahepatic bile duct. The intestinal epithelium showed enhanced exfoliation, villous atrophy, enterocyte tufts and elongated crypts. Organoid crypt culture indicated that Spint2 ablation induced Epcam cleavage with decreased claudin-7 levels and resulted in organoid rupture. These organoid changes could be rescued by addition of serine protease inhibitors aprotinin, camostat mesilate and matriptase-selective α-ketobenzothiazole as well as by co-deletion of Prss8, encoding the serine protease prostasin. These results indicate that HAI-2 is an essential cellular inhibitor for maintaining intestinal epithelium architecture. Makiko Kawaguchi et al. developed an inducible Spint2 knockout mouse model which exhibited extensive damage to the intestinal epithelium and resulted in death six days after tamoxifen-induced gene ablation. The extreme phenotype observed in this inducible line suggests an important role for Spint2 in maintenance of healthy intestinal epithelium. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]