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Episodic memory binds together diverse elements of an event into a cohesive unit. This property enables the reconstruction of multidimensional experiences when triggered by a cue related to a past event via pattern completion processes. Such holistic retrieval is evident in young adults, as shown by dependency in the retrieval success for different associations from the same event [Horner, A. J., & Burgess, N. The associative structure of memory for multi-element events. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 142(4), 1370–1383. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033626, 2013; Horner, A. J., & Burgess, N. (2014). Pattern completion in multielement event engrams. Current Biology, 24(9), 988–992. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2014.03.012, 2014]. Aspects of episodic memory capacity are vulnerable to ageing processes, including reduced abilities to form linkages among aspects of an event through relational binding (Naveh-Benjamin, 2000). Here, we used dependency analyses to examine whether older adults retrieve events holistically, and whether the degree of holistic retrieval declines with old age. We found that both young and older adults retrieved events as an integrated unit, but older adults showed a lower magnitude of holistic retrieval compared to young adults. Holistic retrieval declined with advancing age, even after controlling for pairwise relational binding performance. These results suggest that a decline in holistic retrieval is an aspect of episodic memory decrements in cognitive ageing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Episodic memory relies on discriminating among similar elements of episodes. Mnemonic discrimination is relatively poor at age 4, and then improves markedly. We investigated whether motivation to encode items with fine-grain resolution would change this picture of development, using an engaging computer-administered memory task in which a bird ate items that made her healthier (gain frame), sicker (loss frame), or led to no change (control condition). Using gain-loss framing led to enhanced mnemonic discrimination in 4- and 5-year-olds, but did not affect older children or adults. Despite this differential improvement, age-related differences persisted. An additional finding was that loss-framing led to greater mnemonic discrimination than gain-framing across age groups. Motivation only partially accounts for the improvement in mnemonic discrimination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Episodic memory relies on memory for the relations among multiple elements of an event and the ability to discriminate among similar elements of episodes. The latter phenomenon, termed pattern separation, has been studied mainly in young and older adults with relatively little research on children. Building on prior work with young children, we created an engaging computer-administered relational memory task assessing what-where relations. We also modified the Mnemonic Similarity Task used to assess pattern discrimination in young and older adults for use with preschool children. Results showed that 4-year- olds performed significantly worse than 6-year- olds and adults on both tasks, whereas 6-year- olds and adults performed comparably, even though there were no ceiling effects. However, performance on the two tasks did not correlate, suggesting that two distinct mnemonic processes with different developmental trajectories may contribute to age-related changes in episodic memory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Episodic memory involves binding together what-where-when associations. In three experiments, we tested the development of memory for such contextual associations in a naturalistic setting. Children searched for toys in two rooms with two different experimenters; each room contained two identical sets of four containers, but arranged differently. A distinct toy was hidden in a distinct container in each room. In Experiment 1, which involved children between 15 and 26 months who were prompted with a very explicit cue (a part of the hidden toy), we found a marked shift in performance with age: while 15- to 20-month-olds concentrated their searches on the two containers that sometimes contained toys, they did not distinguish between them according to context, but 21-26-month-olds did. However, surprisingly, without toy cues, even the youngest children showed a fragile ability to disambiguate the two containers by room context. In Experiment 2, we tested 34- to 40-month-olds and 64- to 72-month-olds without toy cues. The 5-year-olds were nearly perfect, and the 3-year-olds showed a significant preference for the correct container given only the context. In Experiment 3, we filled in the age range, and also investigated the effects of the use of labels (i.e. names of experimenters and rooms) and of familiarization time, in groups of 34- to 40-month-olds, 42- to 48-month-olds, and 50- to 56-month-olds. Neither labels nor familiarization time had an effect. Across experiments, there was regular age-related improvement in context-based memory. Overall, the results suggest that children's episodic memory may undergo an early qualitative change, yet to be precisely characterized, and that continuing increments in the use of contextual cues occur throughout the preschool period. A video abstract of this article can be viewed at [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research was an investigation of children's performance on a task that requires memory binding. In Experiments 1 and 2, 4-year-olds, 6-year-olds, and adults viewed complex pictures and were tested on memory for isolated parts in the pictures and on the part combinations (combination condition). The results suggested improvement in memory for the combinations between the ages of 4 and 6 years but not in memory for the isolated parts. In Experiments 2 and 3, the authors also examined the developmental relationship between performance in the combination condition and free recall of a naturalistic event, finding preliminary evidence that performance on a memory task that requires binding is positively related to performance in episodic memory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human episodic memory is not functionally evident until about 2 years of age and continues to develop into the school years. Behavioral studies have elucidated this developmental timeline and its constituent processes. In tandem, lesion and neurophysiological studies in non-human primates and rodents have identified key neural substrates and circuit mechanisms that may underlie episodic memory development. Despite this progress, collaborative efforts between psychologists and neuroscientists remain limited, hindering progress. Here, we seek to bridge human and non-human episodic memory development research by offering a comparative review of studies using humans, non-human primates, and rodents. We highlight critical theoretical and methodological issues that limit cross-fertilization and propose a common research framework, adaptable to different species, that may facilitate cross-species research endeavors. Bevandić et al. review human, non-human primate, and rodent studies on the ontogeny of episodic and episodic-like memory. They identify theoretical and methodological obstacles that currently limit cross-species insights and propose a common research framework to facilitate comparative studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses research being done on the neurobiology of human memory. It references the study "The Ontogeny of Human Memory: A Cognitive Neuroscience Perspective, Where Are We?," by A. Jabès and C. A. Nelson in the 2015 issue. Topics discussed include the study of memory development in school-age children, the nature of the basic explicit memory functions, and the neural substrates of memory. The transition in hippocampally-dependent spatial learning is also discussed.

Episodic memory binds the diverse elements of an event into a coherent representation. This coherence allows for the reconstruction of different aspects of an experience when triggered by a cue related to a past event—a process of pattern completion. Previous work has shown that such holistic recollection is evident in young adults, as revealed by dependency in retrieval success for various associations from the same event. In addition, episodic memory shows clear quantitative increases during early childhood. However, the ontogeny of holistic recollection is uncharted. Using dependency analyses, we found here that 4-year-olds (n = 32), 6-year-olds (n = 30), and young adults (n = 31) all retrieved complex events in a holistic manner; specifically, retrieval accuracy for one aspect of an event predicted accuracy for other aspects of the same event. However, the degree of holistic retrieval increased from the age 4 to adulthood. Thus, extended refinement of multiway binding may be one aspect of episodic memory development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our capacity to form and retrieve episodic memories improves over childhood but declines in old age. Understanding these changes requires decomposing episodic memory into its components. Two such components are (a) mnemonic discrimination of similar people, objects, and contexts, and (b) relational binding of these elements. We designed novel memory tasks to assess these component processes using animations that are appropriate across the life span (ages 4-80 in our sample). In Experiment 1, we assessed mnemonic discrimination of objects as well as relational binding, in a common task format. Both components follow an inverted U-shaped curve across age but were positively correlated only in the aging group. In Experiment 2, we examined mnemonic discrimination of context and its effect on relational binding. Relational memory in low-similarity contexts showed robust gains between the ages of 4 and 6, whereas 6-year-olds performed similarly to adults. In contrast, relational memory in high-similarity contexts showed more protracted development, with 4- and 6-year-olds both performing worse than young adults and not differing from each other. Relational memory in both context conditions declined in aging. This multiprocess approach provides important theoretical insights into life span changes in episodic memory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The formation of memories that contain information about the specific time and place of acquisition, which are commonly referred to as "autobiographical" or "episodic" memories, critically relies on the hippocampus and on a series of interconnected structures located in the medial temporal lobe of the mammalian brain. The observation that adults retain very few of these memories from the first years of their life has fueled a long-standing debate on whether infants can make the types of memories that in adults are processed by the hippocampus-dependent memory system, and whether the hippocampus is involved in learning and memory processes early in life. Recent evidence shows that, even at a time when its circuitry is not yet mature, the infant hippocampus is able to produce long-lasting memories. However, the ability to acquire and store such memories relies on molecular pathways and network-based activity dynamics different from the adult system, which mature with age. The mechanisms underlying the formation of hippocampus-dependent memories during infancy, and the role that experience exerts in promoting the maturation of the hippocampus-dependent memory system, remain to be understood. In this review, we discuss recent advances in our understanding of the ontogeny and the biological correlates of hippocampusdependent memories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Episodic memory capacity requires several processes, including mnemonic discrimination of similar experiences, termed pattern separation, and holistic retrieval of multidimensional experiences given a cue, termed pattern completion. Both computations seem to rely on the hippocampus proper, but they also seem to be instantiated by distinct hippocampal subfields. Thus, we investigated whether individual differences in behavioral expressions of pattern separation and pattern completion were correlated after accounting for general mnemonic ability. Young adult participants learned events comprised of a scene-animal-object triad. In the pattern separation task, we estimated mnemonic discrimination using lure classification for events that contained a similar lure element. In the pattern completion task, we estimated holistic recollection using dependency in retrieval success for different associations from the same event. Although overall accuracies for the two tasks correlated as expected, specific measures of individual variation in holistic retrieval and mnemonic discrimination did not correlate, suggesting that these two processes involve distinguishable properties of episodic memory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During early ontogeny, the rapid and cumulative acquisition of world knowledge contrasts with slower improvements in the ability to lay down detailed and long-lasting episodic memories. This emphasis on generalization at the expense of specificity persists well into middle childhood and possibly into adolescence. During this period, recognizing regularities, forming stable representations of recurring episodes, predicting the structure of future events, and building up semantic knowledge may be prioritized over remembering specific episodes. We highlight recent behavioral and neuroimaging evidence suggesting that maturational differences among subfields within the hippocampus contribute to the developmental lead–lag relation between generalization and specificity, and lay out future research directions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Hippocampal patterns were more dissimilar for related versus unrelated movie clips. • Hippocampal dissimilarity for related clips were equivalent across children and adults. • Content familiarity biased hippocampal dissimilarity in children but not adults. The ability to detect differences among similar events in our lives is a crucial aspect of successful episodic memory performance, which develops across early childhood. The neural substrate of this ability is supported by operations in the medial temporal lobe (MTL). Here, we used representational similarity analysis (RSA) to measure neural pattern similarity in hippocampus, perirhinal cortex, and parahippocampal cortex for 4- to 10-year-old children and adults during naturalistic viewing of clips from the same compared to different movies. Further, we assessed the role of prior exposure to individual movie clips on pattern similarity in the MTL. In both age groups, neural pattern similarity in hippocampus was lower for clips drawn from the same movies compared to those drawn from different movies, suggesting that related content activates processes focused on keeping representations with shared content distinct. However, children showed this only for movies with which they had prior exposures, whereas adults showed the effect regardless of any prior exposures to the movies. These findings suggest that children require repeated exposure to stimuli to show adult-like MTL functioning in distinguishing among similar events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Episodic memories often overlap with other memories and must be retained over time. • We asked how children's episodic memory is affected by overlap, 24hr delay, and age. • 6-year-olds outperformed 4-year-olds; both groups did worse on overlapping pairs. • At delay, nonoverlapping pairs had more cross-context errors in 4- than 6-year-olds. • The delay period affected relational memory differentially in the younger children. Episodic memories typically share overlapping elements in distinctive combinations, and to be valuable for future behavior they need to withstand delays. There is relatively little work on whether children have special difficulty with overlap or withstanding delay. However, Yim, Dennis, and Sloutsky (Psychological Science, 2013, Vol. 24, pp. 2163–2172) suggested that extensive overlap is more problematic for younger children, and Darby and Sloutsky (Psychological Science, 2015, Vol. 26, pp. 1937–1946) reported that a 48-h delay period actually improves children's memory for overlapping pairs of items. In the current study, we asked how children's episodic memory is affected by stimulus overlap, delay, and age using visual stimuli containing either overlapping or unique item pairs. Children aged 4 and 6 years were tested both immediately and after a 24-h delay. As expected, older children performed better than younger children, and both age groups performed worse on overlapping pairs. Surprisingly, the 24-h delay had only a marginal effect on overall accuracy. Although there were no interactions, when errors were examined, there was evidence that delay buffered memory for overlapping pairs against cross-contextual confusion for younger children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Semantic memory—general knowledge of ideas and concepts—includes generalization processes that support inference. Episodic memory, on the other hand, preserves the specificity of individual events by binding together unique combinations of elements from an episode and relies on pattern separation to distinguish similar experiences. These two memory systems play complementary roles, supporting different mnemonic goals, but the nature and extent of their interdependence is unclear. 1,2 Some models suggest that new information is encoded initially as hippocampus-dependent episodic memory and then, either through repetition or gist extraction, becomes semantic over time. 3,4 These models also posit a neocortical route to semantic memory acquisition exists that can bypass the hippocampus. 3 Both proposed routes are slow learning mechanisms, yet generalization can occur rapidly. Recent models suggest that fast generalization relies, in part, on the retrieval of individual but related episodes. 5,6 Such episodic memory gating mechanisms render fast generalization contingent on the memory specificity of instances, a pattern that has been observed in adults. 7,8 None of these models take into account the observation that generalization and episodic specificity have asynchronous developmental profiles, with generalization emerging years before episodic memory. 9,10 We ask two questions about generalized and specific memory during early childhood: first, is rapid generalization contingent on remembering specific past memories? And second, does the strength or nature of this contingency differ across development? We found that the interdependence of generalization and episodic memory varies across development: generalization success in adults, but not in children, was contingent on context binding. [Display omitted] • The ability to generalize knowledge to new situations improves from age 3 to age 8 • Different aspects of past events promote generalization success across development • Adults, but not children, rely on context memories of past instances to generalize Do we create general knowledge by drawing on memories of specific past experiences? Children learn categories and gain knowledge at rapid rates, despite fragile episodic memory. Ngo et al. show that, although adults' memories of specific events are related to generalizing, children form new generalizations based on prior semantic knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]