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Objective: To determine clinically ictal direct current (DC) shifts that can be identified by a time constant (TC) of 2 s and to delineate different types of DC shifts by different attenuation patterns between TC of 10 s and 2 s., Methods: Twenty-one patients who underwent subdural electrode implantation for epilepsy surgery were investigated. For habitual seizures, we compared (1) the peak amplitude and (2) peak latency of the earliest ictal DC shifts between TC of 10 s and 2 s. Cluster and logistic regression analyses were performed based on the attenuation rate of amplitude and peak latency with TC 10 s., Results: Ictal DC shifts in 120 seizures were analyzed; 89.1% of which were appropriately depicted even by a TC of 2 s. Cluster and logistic regression analyses revealed two types of ictal DC shift. Namely, a rapid development pattern was defined as the ictal DC shifts with a shorter peak latency and they also showed smaller attenuation rate of amplitude (73/120 seizures). Slow development pattern was defined as the ictal DC shifts with crosscurrent of a rapid development pattern, i.e., a longer peak latency and larger attenuation rate of amplitude (47/120 seizures). Focal cortical dysplasia (FCD) 1A tended to show a rapid development pattern (22/29 seizures) and FCD2A tended to show a slow development pattern (13 /18 seizures), indicating there might be some correlations between two types of ictal DC shift and certain pathologies., Conclusions: Ictal DC shifts, especially rapid development pattern, can be recorded and identified by the AC amplifiers of TC of 2 s which is widely used in many institutes compared to that of TC of 10 s. Two types of ictal DC shifts were identified with possibility of corresponding pathology., Significance: Ictal DC shifts can be distinguished by their attenuation patterns., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2022 International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: This study investigated neuronal sources of slow cortical potentials (SCPs) evoked during vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) in patients with epilepsy who underwent routine electroencephalography (EEG) after implantation of the device., Materials and Methods: We analyzed routine clinical EEG from 24 patients. There were 5 to 26 trains of VNS during EEG. To extract SCPs from the EEG, a high-frequency filter of 0.2 Hz was applied. These EEG epochs were averaged and used for source analyses. The averaged waveforms for each patient and their grand average were subjected to multidipole analysis. Patients with at least 50% seizure frequency reduction were considered responders. Findings from EEG analysis dipole were compared with VNS responses., Results: VNS-induced focal SCPs whose dipoles were estimated to be located in several cortical areas including the medial prefrontal cortex, postcentral gyrus, and insula, with a significantly higher frequency in patients with a good VNS response than in those with a poor response., Conclusions: This study suggested that some VNS-induced SCPs originating from the so-called vagus afferent network are related to the suppression of epileptic seizures., (Copyright © 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: Epilepsy associated with tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) has very complex clinical characteristics. Scalp electroencephalogram (EEG) fast (40-200 Hz) oscillations (FOs) were recently suggested to indicate epilepsy severity. Epileptic FOs may undergo age-dependent longitudinal change in individual patients, however, and the typical pattern of such change is not yet fully clarified. We therefore investigated the age-related correspondence between clinical courses and FOs in pediatric patients with TSC-associated epilepsy., Subjects and Methods: FOs were semi-automatically detected from scalp sleep EEG data recorded from 23 children (15 boys, 8 girls; initial data obtained at <10 years of age) with TSC-associated epilepsy., Results: The number of FOs per patient that were associated with spikes was significantly greater than that of FOs unassociated with spikes (median 145 and 5, respectively; p = 0.0001 by the Wilcoxon signed-rank test). In the eight patients who had West syndrome (WS) in infancy, FOs associated with spikes were abundant during the WS period prior to adrenocorticotropic hormone therapy, with significantly greater numbers of FOs compared to the post-WS period (median 242 and 0, respectively; p = 0.0078). As there was no such time-dependent difference regarding FOs unassociated with spikes, FOs associated with spikes were identified as epileptic. The detected FOs included both gamma and ripple oscillations with no consistent age-dependent shifts in dominant frequency. There were no apparent age-related changes in FO duration., Conclusions: Epileptic scalp FOs are confirmed to correspond to severity of epileptic encephalopathy, particularly in WS, even during the long-term evolutional courses of TSC-associated epilepsy., (Copyright © 2020 The Japanese Society of Child Neurology. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

An accurate identification of the epileptogenic zone is essential for patients with intractable epilepsy who are candidates to neurosurgery. EEG recordings can provide predictive biomarkers of the epileptogenic zone. Wide-band EEG makes it possible to record from infraslow (including DC shifts) to high frequency (HFO, over 300 Hz) oscillations for diagnostic purposes in patients with epilepsy. Although the presence of HFOs have been proposed to sign the epileptogenic zone, DC-like recordings demonstrate that DC shifts precede HFOs at seizure onset. This led to the proposal that "ictal active DC shifts" are causally related to seizure onset as opposed to "ictal passive DC shifts". Thus, active DC shifts may constitute predictive biomarkers of the epileptogenic zone in epilepsy. Since DC shift is commonly associated to a rise in extracellular potassium, potassium homeostasis regulated by Kir4.1 channels in astrocytes may play an key role at seizure onset. In addition, we hypothesize that, during the interictal period, the co-occurrence of slow events and interictal HFOs, so-called "Red slow", may also delineate an epileptogenic zone, even if a seizure would not be actually recorded., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest Department of Epilepsy, Movement Disorders and Physiology is an endowment department, supported with a grant from GlaxoSmithKline K.K., NIHON KOHDEN CORPORATION, Otsuka Pharmaceutical Co., and UCB Japan Co., Ltd.Department of Respiratory Care and Sleep Control Medicine is the department donated from Teijin Pharma Limited, Philips Respironics GK, Fukuda Denshi CO., LTD., and Fukuda Lifetech Keiji CO., LTD., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. and Japan Neuroscience Society. All rights reserved.)

In the present study, we attempted to characterize two characteristic features within the dynamic behavior of wideband electrocorticography data, which were recorded as the brain waves of epilepsy, comprising high-frequency oscillations (HFOs) and interictal epileptic slow (red slow). The results of power spectrum and nonlinear time series analysis indicate that, on one hand, HFOs at epileptic focus are characterized by one-dimensional dynamical systems in ictal onset time segments at an epileptic focus for two patients' datasets; on the other hand, an interictal epileptic slow is characterized by the residue of power spectrum. The results suggest that the degree of freedom of the brain dynamics during epileptic seizure with HFO degenerates to low-dimensional dynamics; hence, the interictal epileptic slow as the precursors of the seizure onset can be detected simply from interictal brain wave data for the dataset of one patient. Therefore, our results are essential to understand the brain dynamics in epilepsy., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest Masao Matsuhashi and Akio Ikeda: Department of Epilepsy, Movement Disorders and Physiology, Kyoto University is the Industry-Academia Collaboration Courses, supported by Eisai Co., Ltd., Nihon Kohden Corporation, Otsuka Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd. and UCB Japan Co. Ltd., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. and Japan Neuroscience Society. All rights reserved.)

Objective: Multispectrum electrocorticographic components are critical for mapping the nonprimary motor area (NPMA). The objective of this study was to derive and validate a reliable scoring system for electrocorticography-based NPMA mapping (NPMA score) to replace electrical cortical stimulation (ECS) during brain surgery., Methods: We analyzed 14 consecutive epilepsy patients with subdural electrodes implanted in the frontal lobe at Kyoto University Hospital. The NPMA score was retrospectively derived from multivariate analysis in the derivation group (patients = 7, electrodes = 713, during 2010-2013) and validated in the validation group (patients = 7, electrodes = 772, during 2014-2017). We assessed the accuracy and reliability of the score relative to ECS in determining the NPMA and predicting postoperative functional outcomes., Results: Multivariate analysis in the derivation group led to an 8-point score for predicting ECS-based NPMA (1 point for anatomical localization of the electrode and 1 or 2 points for movement-related electrocorticographic components regardless of somatotopy in very slow cortical potential shifts [<0.5 Hz], 40-80-Hz band power increase, and 8-24-Hz band power decrease), which was validated in the validation group. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) was 0.89 in the derivation group. Good prediction (specificity = 94%, sensitivity = 100%) and discrimination (AUC = 0.87) were reproduced in the validation group. Overall, higher NPMA scores identified 2 patients with postoperative deficits after frontal lobe resection., Significance: The NPMA score is reliable for NPMA mapping, potentially replacing ECS. It is a potential prognostic marker for postoperative functional deficits., (Wiley Periodicals, Inc. © 2019 International League Against Epilepsy.)

Objective: To assess the feasibility of multi-component electrocorticography (ECoG)-based mapping using "wide-spectrum, intrinsic-brain activities" for identifying the primary sensori-motor area (S1-M1)., Methods: We evaluated 14 epilepsy patients with 1514 subdural electrodes implantation covering the perirolandic cortices at Kyoto University Hospital between 2011 and 2016. We performed multi-component, ECoG-based mapping (band-pass filter, 0.016-300/600 Hz) involving combined analyses of the single components: movement-related cortical potential (<0.5-1 Hz), event-related synchronization (76-200 Hz), and event-related de-synchronization (8-24 Hz) to identify the S1-M1. The feasibility of multi-component mapping was assessed through comparisons with single-component mapping and electrical cortical stimulation (ECS)., Results: Among 54 functional areas evaluation, ECoG-based maps showed significantly higher rate of localization concordances with ECS maps when the three single-component maps were consistent than when those were inconsistent with each other (p < 0.001 in motor, and p = 0.02 in sensory mappings). Multi-component mapping revealed high sensitivity (89-90%) and specificity (94-97%) as compared with ECS., Conclusions: Wide-spectrum, multi-component ECoG-based mapping is feasible, having high sensitivity/specificity relative to ECS., Significance: This safe (non-stimulus) mapping strategy, alternative to ECS, would allow clinicians to rule in/out the possibility of brain function prior to resection surgery., (Copyright © 2018 International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Physiological high frequency activities (HFA) are related to various brain functions. Factors, however, regulating its frequency have not been well elucidated in humans. To validate the hypothesis that different propagation modes (thalamo-cortical vs. cortico-coritcal projections), or different terminal layers (layer IV vs. layer II/III) affect its frequency, we, in the primary somatosensory cortex (SI), compared HFAs induced by median nerve stimulation with those induced by electrical stimulation of the cortex connecting to SI. We employed 6 patients who underwent chronic subdural electrode implantation for presurgical evaluation. We evaluated the HFA power values in reference to the baseline overriding N20 (earliest cortical response) and N80 (late response) of somatosensory evoked potentials (HFA(SEP(N20)) and HFA(SEP(N80))) and compared those overriding N1 and N2 (first and second responses) of cortico-cortical evoked potentials (HFA(CCEP(N1)) and HFA(CCEP(N2))). HFA(SEP(N20)) showed the power peak in the frequency above 200 Hz, while HFA(CCEP(N1)) had its power peak in the frequency below 200 Hz. Different propagation modes and/or different terminal layers seemed to determine HFA frequency. Since HFA(CCEP(N1)) and HFA induced during various brain functions share a similar broadband profile of the power spectrum, cortico-coritcal horizontal propagation seems to represent common mode of neural transmission for processing these functions.

Objective: We assessed the temporal-spatial characteristics of ictal direct current (DC) shifts (or infraslow activity) and high frequency oscillations (HFOs) in 16 patients with intractable focal epilepsy., Methods: The underlying etiology consisted of cortical dysplasia, glioma, hippocampal sclerosis, and low-grade neuroepithelial tumor in nine, four, two, and one patients, respectively. The median number of analyzed seizure events was 8.0 per patient (range: 2-10). Chronic electrocorticographic recording was performed with (1) a band-pass filter of 0.016-600Hz (or 0.016-300Hz) and a sampling rate of 2000Hz (or 1000Hz)., Results: Ictal DC shifts and a sustained form of ictal HFOs were observed in 75.0% and 50.0% of the patients, and 71.3% and 46.3% of the analyzed seizures. Visual assessment revealed that the onset of ictal DC shifts preceded that of ictal HFOs with statistical significance in 5/7 patients. The spatial extent of ictal DC shifts or HFOs was smaller than that of the conventionally defined seizure onset zone in 9/12 patients., Conclusion: Both ictal DC shifts and HFOs might represent the core of tissue generating seizures., Significance: The early occurrence of ictal DC shifts warrants further studies to determine the role of glia (possibly mediating ictal DC shifts) in seizure generation., (Copyright © 2014 International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology. Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

It is now recommended that magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or computed tomography (CT) be carried out in all patients with at least partial- and hopefully also generalized epilepsy to help identify intracranial lesions, such as hippocampal sclerosis, focal cortical dysplasia, brain tumor, cavernous malformation, and arteriovenous malformation. In order to identify epileptic focus, other neuroimaging tools, such as positron emission tomography (PET), single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), and magnetoencephalography (MEG), are also useful, because an epileptogenic area is not necessarily located within these intracranial lesions. With regard to epilepsy surgery, neuroimaging is also required for the identification of functionally essential cortices, such as motor and language areas. MEG and functional MRI are noninvasively, and tractography with diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) is also useful for visualizing relevant white matter tracts. Recently, it has been reported that the cortico-cortical network plays an important role in preservation of brain function. Thus, cortico-cortical evoked potentials (CCEP) and resting state fMRI are candidate methods to help clarify brain network. While good seizure control is an important treatment outcome for patients with intractable partial epilepsy, the preservation of brain function is equally important. For this reason, further development and clinical application of sophisticated imaging technique are required.

Visual language processing in the left basal temporal area (LBTA) was investigated using subdural electrodes in two patients with medically intractable temporal lobe epilepsy. Reading of Japanese syllabogram (kana) and morphogram (kanji) both provoked two types of event-related potentials, one with the peak latency of approximately 200 milliseconds and the other approximately 300 milliseconds, at the anterior and posterior portion of the fusiform, parahippocampal, and inferior temporal gyri within LBTA. By electrical stimulation using the same electrodes, in contrast, kana reading was selectively impaired in one area in the posterior portion of LBTA where a sharp event-related potential was recorded at approximately 200 milliseconds, and kanji reading was selectively impaired in another area also in the posterior portion of LBTA, where a blunt event-related potential was recorded at approximately 300 milliseconds. Because kana reading is functionally fundamental compared with kanji reading, relatively early signals at 200 milliseconds might be related to postperceptual but still fundamental functions such as letter-by-letter language processing and relatively late signals at 300 milliseconds might be associated with postperceptual, relatively higher-order functions such as word-as-a-whole language processing. The results indicate the existence of two distinct functional areas for written-language processing within LBTA. Both kanji and kana signals reach specific area at the same timing.

Objective: To evaluate the suppressive effect of electric cortical stimulation upon the seizure onset zone and the non-epileptic cortex covered by subdural electrodes in patients with neocortical epilepsy and mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (MTLE)., Methods: Four patients with medically intractable focal epilepsy had implanted subdural electrodes for preoperative evaluation. Cortical functional mapping was performed by intermittently repeating bursts of electric stimulation, which consisted of 50 Hz alternating square pulse of 0.3 ms duration, 1-15 mA, within 5 s. The effect of this stimulation on the seizure onset zones and on the non-epileptic areas was evaluated by comparing spike frequency and electrocorticogram (ECoG) power spectra before and after stimulation. A similar comparison was performed in stimulation of 0.9 Hz of the seizure onset zones for 15 min., Results: When the seizure onset zone was stimulated with high frequency, spike frequency decreased by 24.7%. Logarithmic ECoG power spectra recorded at stimulated electrode significantly decreased in 10-32 Hz band by high frequency stimulation of the seizure onset zone, and in 14-32 Hz band by high frequency stimulation of the non-epileptic area. Low frequency stimulation of the seizure onset zone produced 18.5% spike reduction and slight power decrease in 12-14 Hz., Conclusions: Both high and low frequency electric cortical stimulation of the seizure onset zone have a suppressive effect on epileptogenicity. Reduction of ECoG fast activities after electric cortical stimulation suggests the augmentation of inhibitory mechanisms in human cortex.

Unlabelled: OBJECTIVES AND IMPORTANCE: It is important to evaluate the seizure manifestation of epilepsy before surgical planning. A patient with partial epilepsy manifesting hypersalivation who underwent resection of the epileptogenic foci with satisfactory postoperative seizure control is reported., Clinical Presentation and Intervention: A 26-year-old man, with a history of perinatal asphyxia, started having medically intractable partial epilepsy at the age of 10 years. His seizure was characterized by throat discomfort followed by hypersalivation. Brain MRI showed an atrophic lesion around the peri-Sylvian area. Scalp recorded EEG did not demonstrate robust epileptiform activity localized enough to define the epileptogenic zone. The patient underwent invasive recording by multiple subdural electrode grids, which showed that the seizure arose from the left anterior frontal operculum. After resection of epileptogenic opercular cortex, the seizures disappeared with no additional neurological deficits., Conclusion: Although the responsible sites for ictal drooling are distributed in multiple areas including insula, medial temporal area and operculum, the seizure can be successfully controlled by focus resection of the frontal opercular area in a selected patient with careful presurgical evaluation.

We investigated the role of the cerebral cortex, particularly the face/tongue area of the primary sensorimotor (SMI) cortex (face/tongue) and supplementary motor area (SMA), in volitional swallowing by recording movement-related cortical potentials (MRCPs). MRCPs with swallowing and tongue protrusion were recorded from scalp electrodes in eight normal right-handed subjects and from implanted subdural electrodes in six epilepsy patients. The experiment by scalp EEG in normal subjects revealed that premovement Bereitschaftspotentials (BP) activity for swallowing was largest at the vertex and lateralized to either hemisphere in the central area. The experiment by epicortical EEG in patients confirmed that face/tongue SMI and SMA were commonly involved in swallowing and tongue protrusion with overlapping distribution and interindividual variability. BP amplitude showed no difference between swallowing and tongue movements, either at face/tongue SMI or at SMA, whereas postmovement potential (PMP) was significantly larger in tongue protrusion than in swallowing only at face/tongue SMI. BP occurred earlier in swallowing than in tongue protrusion. Comparison between face/tongue SMI and SMA did not show any difference with regard to BP and PMP amplitude or BP onset time in either task. The preparatory role of the cerebral cortex in swallowing was similar to that in tongue movement, except for earlier activation in swallowing. Postmovement processing of swallowing was lesser than that of tongue movement in face/tongue SMI; probably suggesting that the cerebral cortex does not play a significant role in postmovement processing of swallowing. SMA plays a supplementary role to face/tongue SMI both in swallowing and tongue movements.

Purpose: To investigate underlying mechanisms and adequate parameters for electric cortical stimulation to inhibit epileptic focus in humans., Methods: A patient with intractable partial epilepsy had subdural electrodes implanted for preoperative evaluation. Cortical functional mapping was performed by using 50-Hz alternating square pulse of 0.3-ms duration, 1 to 7 mA, within 5 s. Spike frequency and electrocorticogram (ECoG) power spectra were compared before and after the stimulation when epileptic focus and distant area were stimulated. A similar comparison also was performed in low-frequency stimulation of 0.9 Hz applied for 15 min., Results: Interictal spikes were reduced after electric cortical stimulation of the epileptic area at a frequency of 50 Hz as well as 0.9 Hz, with concomitant decrease in the electrographic fast activities at 50-Hz stimulation., Conclusions: These data suggest that electric cortical stimulation at both high and low frequency has a suppressive effect on epileptic activities in human cortex, possibly through distinct mechanisms., (Copyright 2004 International League Against Epilepsy)

Objective: Previous lesion studies in patients and functional imaging studies in normal subjects have led to the notion that the temporo-parietal junction (TPJ) has an integrative function for multisensory inputs. However, its electrophysiological properties such as response latencies and distributions of responses to various stimulus modalities in humans have not been fully investigated. The aim of the study is to clarify this issue., Methods: We recorded evoked potentials to different kinds of sensory stimuli including somatosensory, auditory and visual modalities in 6 patients with intractable partial epilepsy, who underwent chronic implantation of subdural electrodes in TPJ for presurgical evaluation., Results: In 5 out of 6 subjects, at least one electrode located in TPJ for each subject showed a maximum somatosensory evoked response commonly to electric, passive joint motion and pain stimuli. These electrodes showed the maximum responses also to tone stimuli in all of 4 subjects studied, and to visual motion stimuli in 3 out of 5 subjects studied. The polarity was consistent regardless of the stimulus modality within each individual subject, although the anatomical location, polarity and latency varied among subjects., Conclusions: A small area in TPJ for each individual subject receives sensory information of multiple modalities possibly coming from different receptive sites, although the electrophysiological properties of the responses may vary among subjects., Significance: We confirmed the convergence of somatosensory, auditory and visual evoked responses at human TPJ.

Objective: To clarify the functional subdivisions of the human lateral premotor cortex (PM) in the visuomotor control., Methods: Event-related potentials (ERPs) were epicortically recorded from PM in 5 epilepsy patients. S1-Go/NoGo choice delayed reaction time (RT), S1-warned S2-Go simple RT and control fixation paradigms were compared using paired visual stimuli (S1, S2)., Results: Signal-related activity peaked at 176-194 ms after S1 in the ventrorostral PM (PMvr) in all 3 paradigms, indicating its role in signal perception. Early set-related activity was recorded with its peak <810 ms after S1 in the dorsorostral PM (PMdr) and was larger in the choice than in the simple RT paradigm, suggesting its role in signal selection. Its cognitive component was recorded as surface-positive transients at PMdr, while its motoric aspect, seen as negative transients, extended to the caudal PM. Late sustained set-related activity was observed in preparation for hand movement in the caudal PM at the hand and face positive motor areas. After presentation of S2, movement-related activity was observed at the hand sensorimotor area for motor execution, following the signal-related activity at PMvr., Conclusions: The present ERP study suggests the temporally sequential representation of predominantly 'cognitive' function in the rostral PM and 'motor' function in the caudal PM., Significance: The rostrocaudal cognitive-motor gradient was demonstrated in the lateral premotor cortex in humans by means of an epicortical ERP approach.

A 52-year-old right handed man presented with medically intractable partial seizures consisting of numbness on the left upper back spreading to the left upper as well as lower limbs. Head computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging showed a round calcified lesion in the depth of the superior ramus of the right sylvian fissure. Ictal electrocorticographic recording with chronically implanted subdural electrodes showed low voltage fast activities starting exclusively from an electrode located on the right inferior parietal lobule. No apparent ictal activities were observed from the depth electrodes inserted in the parietal operculum. Somatosensory evoked potentials of 75 ms to 145 ms latency were recorded from the ictal onset zone, which was 2 cm caudal to the perisylvian area corresponding to the second somatosensory area. Seizures arising from the inferior parietal lobule including the angular and supuramarginal gyri can produce partial seizures whose ictal semiology and scalp electroencephalography are indistinguishable from the ones originating from the second somatosensory area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To locate the visual motion complex (MT+) and study its response properties in an epilepsy surgery patient.Methods: A 17-year-old epilepsy patient underwent invasive monitoring with subdural electrodes in the right temporo-parieto-occipital area. MT+ was investigated by cortical electric stimulation and by epicortical visual evoked potentials time-locked to motion onset of sinusoidal gratings (motion VEP). Motion-related visual evoked magnetic field (motion VEF) was also recorded before the electrode implantation to complement the invasive recording.Results: Motion VEPs revealed two subregions within MT+, generating early and late potentials respectively. The early activity with a peak around 130 ms was localized at a single electrode situated immediately caudal to the initial portion of the ascending limb of the superior temporal sulcus (AL-STS). The late activity, peaking at 242–274 ms, was located ventro-rostrally over three electrodes. Among the four electrodes with motion VEPs, cortical stimulation at the most caudal pair elicited motion-in-depth perception involving the whole visual field. In addition to two subregions revealed on the gyral crown, magnetoencephalography (MEG) demonstrated another subregion with a late motion VEF in AL-STS immediately rostral to the electrode with the early motion VEP.Conclusions: In combination with MEG recording, the present invasive exploration demonstrated human MT+ in a focal area of the temporo-parieto-occipital junction and delineated possible three subregions as indicated by the different latencies and distributions of the motion VEP/VEFs.Significance: Comparative MEG and direct electrocorticographic recordings delineated possible subregions within the human MT complex. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]