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Agriculture, one of the main economic pillars in Europe, plays a growing important role towards the environmental sustainability of the extra-urban land, in which the agricultural activities may proactively contribute to control and regulate the whole ecological conditions. Modern agriculture currently needs big quantities of agrochemicals, which are necessary for the growth and protection of crops and animals. These agrochemicals are commercially distributed to consumers in many types of containers. The most widely used packaging solutions usually employ plastic materials (e.g., containers for liquid pesticide; sacks for granular fertiliser; etc.). These materials, after the use of the agrochemical, need to be decontaminated, before being entrained in a recycling process, in the framework of a circular economy. In the present paper the main results coming from a EU-funded international project are reported, with specific reference to a pilot station that was realised in Italy with the aim to implement and test a codified system for the decontamination of these plastic containers for agrochemicals. The experimental tests were supported by relevant laboratory analysis, which have confirmed that the triple-rinsing decontamination procedure - traditionally employed by farmers for washing and decontaminating these containers - may be effective only under some well-defined conditions. Triple rinsing by farmers has indeed led to an only partial decontamination of the plastic containers, if farmers did not follow an appropriate triple-rinsing protocol, or did not triple-rinse the containers immediately after their emptying.

Circular economy aims to create a system that allows an optimal reuse of products and materials. According to an appropriate planning hierarchy, agricultural and agro-food co-products, by-products and wastes should be primarily employed to re-balance soil fertility, and afterwards valorized as new secondary raw materials used in the same agricultural sector or in different industrial chains (e.g., cosmetics, nutraceuticals, etc.). Finally, only at the end of this process, they could be conveyed to energy production through co-generation. In this paper, different residues generated by the wine production chain have been considered with reference to the Basilicata region (Southern Italy). These biomasses have been quantitatively assessed and qualitatively classified, in order to find the most rational and convenient solution for their valorization from a technical, economic and environmental point of view. From the spatial analysis&mdash, elaborated by implementing a Geographic Information System&mdash, some thematic maps have been obtained, which allow us to highlight the areas with the highest concentration of residues. In this way, focusing the analysis on these areas, some possible strategies for their management and valorization have been proposed, so as to restore soil fertility and contribute to the sustainable preservation of the rural landscape.

Circular economy aims to create a system that allows an optimal reuse of products and materials. In this context, the contribution provided by the valorization of residual biomass is fundamental for the production of renewable biological resources and their conversion into new added-value products. Indeed, according to an appropriate planning hierarchy, agricultural and agro-food co-products, by-products and wastes should be primarily employed to re-balance soil fertility, then valorized as new secondary raw materials used in the same agricultural sector or in different industrial chains (e.g., cosmetics, nutraceuticals, etc.). Only at the end of this process, they could be finally conveyed to energy production through co-generation. In this paper, the different residues generated by the wine production chain have been considered with reference to the Basilicata region (Southern Italy). These biomasses have been quantitatively evaluated and qualitatively classified, in order to find the most rational and convenient solution for their valorization from a technical, economic and environmental point of view. From the spatial analysis elaborated by implementing a Geographic Information System, some thematic maps have been obtained. These maps have allowed to highlight the areas with the highest concentration of residues. In this way, possible strategies for their management and valorization may be formulated, even with the support of an Internet of Things network system, aimed to allow a constant monitoring of their life cycle.

Due to several growing environmental constraints, renewable energy sources currently play an increasingly crucial role that, owing to their high temporal and spatial variability, needs a careful planning approach. It is important therefore to develop a framework that examines the distribution of different energy sources in a spatio-temporal context. From an energy point of view, a regional territory, such as an internal southern Italian region (the Basilicata Region), can be considered as a paradigmatic case study, because it is characterized by significant sources of renewable energy (e.g., biomass, wind, solar, hydro) connected to its morphological and environmental structure, as well as to its agricultural and food productions. The present paper in based on an analysis of the spatial supply and relationships between renewable energy potentials and rural land, through the use of a Geographic Information System that has been implemented with the aim to analyze the energy system, as well as to optimize the valorization of biomass resources that may be still unutilized within the bioenergy production chain. This study has been carried out even to bridge the gap between energy systems modeling and landscape planning. Within this context, an “Energyscape” may be considered as the effect resulting on the rural landscape from a combination of the supply, demand and infrastructure for energy. This framework could be therefore a starting point for an interdisciplinary analysis able to figure out optimal solutions in decision-making processes, which duly respect the protection and restoring of endangered ecosystems, supporting the decision about an optimal spatial localization of energy plants as well.

The Mediterranean area is characterized by hot summers that, especially inside greenhouses, can determine non-optimal conditions for the growth of vegetable crops. In Southern Italy, the use of shading nets or the application of calcium hydroxide (whitening) on the cover material of the greenhouse is often used by farmers to improve micro-climatic conditions for crops and to obtain a healthier environment for workers. In recent years, thanks to their cheaper price accompanied by improved photo selective properties, plastic nets are often used for shading purposes, combining the shade effect with their specific features useful for the crop growth. Like other vegetable crops in the Mediterranean area, sweet pepper cultivation in greenhouses can benefit by shading during the late spring and summer months. With the aim of determining the effects of different greenhouse shading methods on the cultivation of sweet pepper, a trial was carried out in Battipaglia (Campania Region - Southern Italy), comparing cover whitening, made by slaked lime, with two plastic nets, a reflective aluminized cloth having 50% of shade level (Aluminet) and a photo-selective red net having 30% of shade level (red Chromatinet), resulting the colored shading nets most used by farmers in the study area. In addition, an unshaded greenhouse was utilized as a control. The plastic nets, as well as allowing a shading effect, contributed to avoid the decrease in the greenhouse temperature overnight (Aluminet), as well as to modify the spectrum of the transmitted light (Chromatinet). In order to investigate the influence of the studied nets on the growth of sweet pepper, yield quantitative and qualitative traits were performed. Furthermore, spectro-radiometrical and mechanical characterizations of nets, through laboratory tests, were carried-out. The results obtained by these tests, confirming the relationship between the porosity of a net and its transmittance in the solar range, allow to evaluate the different shading and transmittance effects.

The transmitted radiation into the conventional net-houses is very low in the early morning and late afternoon that may not fulfill the crop growth requirements. To solve this problem, two types of net-house models (polygon and curved-arch net-houses) were newly designed, each having seven surfaces made up of different net types. The spectral radiative properties of 32 nets were examined and three nets were selected to cover the surfaces of each model. The two designs showed high transmittance in the morning and afternoon, and low at around noon (U shape). The polygon style was scaled-up and an experiential net-house was constructed with a floor area of 28 m2. An evaporatively-cooled greenhouse with a floor area of 28 m2 was used for comparison; each floor was planted with 500 potted Chrysanthemum plant. The results showed that the PAR and microclimate in the net-house and cooled greenhouse were similar. The net-house reduced water consumption by 13 kg m−2 day−1 in summer and by 0.94 kg m−2 day−1 in winter; and reduced electric energy consumption by 0.26 kw-h m−2 day−1 in summer and by 0.18 kw-h m−2 day−1 in winter compared to the greenhouse.

Agrochemical containers shall undergo decontamination before being considered for recycling. This study provides an assessment on the feasibility of the triple-rinsing decontamination procedure, while evaluating the appropriateness of the material’s quality for recycling. To achieve the objectives of the study, (1) the effectiveness of the decontamination procedure was investigated; (2) containers´ long storage times and changes on the polymer´s structure were assessed; and (3) the quality of the recycled material was tested. Results showed that the triple-rinsing procedure was ineffective for the container´s complete decontamination, yet a further washing step – performed during the simulation of the recycling process – allowed for an improved degree of decontamination for recycling. Photo-oxidation imposed significant changes on the chemical structure of the polymer, where the active ingredient could be detected by FTIR, even after the application of rinsing and extraction. The chemical structure of the bulk material has not changed, indicating that the pesticide mobilization was only confined to the surface. The mechanical tests showed material quality appropriateness, where tensile strength values were within the suggested ranges, providing a possibility for further utilization of this material when appropriate decontamination is applied.

The use of plastic covers for protecting cultivation in wide rural areas sets remarkable technical problems connected with the effects that large extensions of agricultural land covered with continuous cladding material may determine on aesthetic pollution of the rural landscape and on negative environmental impacts on water cycle, air and agricultural soil of the agro-ecosystem. In this paper, techniques based on remote sensing have been used for an analysis of the rural land use in terms of application of plastics in protected cultivation, in a study area located in Southern Italy near the coastline of the Jonian Sea, where the utilization of plastics in agriculture is widespread. The analysis has been realized using multitemporal Landsat TM images through Supervised classification, image processing, vectorialization and GIS tools. The results enabled the creation of a routine for the auto-detection of the plastic covers. The variation in the visual perception of the agricultural land was examined through a GIS software and a three-dimensional land modelling with solid extrusion and an overlap of the photographic images reproducing plastic-covered protected crops. The results of these simulations could be used for monitoring the variation of rural land use and supporting sound policies of landscape and environmental planning. Through a multi-variate approach to the analysis of environmental and landscape impacts, the concept of a “threshold” limit for the quantity of plastic-covered agricultural structures was proposed, and possible modification of texture and colour of the cladding material mitigating the aesthetic and environmental impact were evaluated.

Shading the greenhouses is necessary in summer to reduce the solar radiation load. This however generates a considerable amount of thermal radiation heat load that needs to be removed via cooling systems. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of different shading configurations on the solar and thermal radiation in a greenhouse. Nets at four different locations were employed to shade the roof and side-walls of a polycarbonate, mechanically ventilated greenhouse. The spectral radiative properties of all these plastic materials were measured in short and long wave spectrum bands. The net solar and thermal radiations and air temperature were measured outside and inside two identical shaded and unshaded greenhouses. The results showed that external roof-shading is desirable, as it reduced the generated thermal radiation in the greenhouse by 21% and 15% during the day and night time, respectively and reduced the greenhouse air temperature during the day. The internal shading (roof and side walls) is undesirable, since it drastically increased the generated thermal radiation in the greenhouse by 147% and strongly increased the greenhouse air temperature during the day. Shading the side-walls is not recommended because it significantly reduces the transmitted solar radiation in the morning and afternoon (when the outside irradiance is low) and is useless at around noon when the outside irradiance is extremely high.

A systematic analysis of the natural ventilation process in greenhouses at no-wind and low-wind-speed conditions was performed with the use of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). The validity of this approach was first checked with success by comparing the numerical results with experimental data obtained from the literature. Numerical predictions of the ventilation efficiency of typical Mediterranean-type greenhouses were obtained for various ventilator configurations. These computer simulations were based on a realistic representation of the heat sources and the boundary conditions related to the problem. The contribution of specific ventilators to the greenhouse air renewal was analysed. The importance of side-wall ventilators for an efficient thermally driven ventilation (‘buoyancy effect’) was confirmed. It was demonstrated that CFD is a powerful tool for developing improved designs with respect to ventilation efficiency.

A review of agricultural plastic waste generation and consolidation in Europe is presented. A detailed geographical mapping of the agricultural plastic use and waste generation in Europe was conducted focusing on areas of high concentration of agricultural plastics. Quantitative data and analysis of the agricultural plastic waste generation by category, geographical distribution and compositional range, and physical characteristics of the agricultural plastic waste per use and the temporal distribution of the waste generation are presented. Data were collected and cross-checked from a variety of sources, including European, national and regional services and organizations, local agronomists, retailers and farmers, importers and converters. Missing data were estimated indirectly based on the recorded cultivated areas and the characteristics of the agricultural plastics commonly used in the particular regions. The temporal distribution, the composition and physical characteristics of the agricultural plastic waste streams were mapped by category and by application. This study represents the first systematic effort to map and analyse agricultural plastic waste generation and consolidation in Europe.

In this paper the attention has been focused on the energy from biomass by-product, including forest biomass and agricultural production, waste and other sources of renewable energy, available in the Basilicata Region. In order to determine the quantity of extractable biomass from the forests of the region data from plans for forest management were used. These data were imported in a Geographic Information System, in order to determine in which part of the Region there is the possibility to find greater quantity of biomass. As for the determination of the quantities of agricultural biomass, the energy crops and the agricultural waste (such as crop residues, grass cuttings, pruning, manure, waste coming from agro-food industries, etc.) were considered too. The reuse and exploitation of these wastes, while contributing to the solution of problems related to their disposal, promote their recovery as a primary source of energy. Once estimated the annual amount of biomass, the percentage of the annual energy contribution which this kind of by-product is able to ensure was determined; this renewable energy source may therefore significantly contribute to the development of the agro-forestry sector.

A systematic analysis of the ventilation process in greenhouses was performed with the use of computational fluid dynamics (CFD). First, the validity of the model assumptions was established by comparing the numerical results with experimental data. A good agreement between the numerical data and the experimental measurements was found if a two-scale k-e turbulence model is applied in the CFD simulation. Then, the influence of design characteristics, such as the greenhouse length, on the ventilation was examined in the case of a typical Mediterranean-type greenhouse. It was demonstrated that CFD is a powerful tool for developing improved designs with respect to ventilation efficiency but the results cannot be generalized. Therefore, a systematic investigation of the most common greenhouse types is necessary.