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Personal exposure to particulate matter (PM) is associated with a variety of adverse health effects and cardiopulmonary diseases. As a mitigating measure to improve air quality, policymakers should select street cleaning tools according to their potential environmental impact, but there is little information about their actual effect on particle pollution. This paper describes the contribution made by leaf blowers to suspended PM and analyzes the duration of this effect during street sweeping in an urban environment. Particle concentration has been monitored throughout a fixed-site 104-day sampling campaign using the Dylos DC1700, a low-cost real-time laser particle counter. This detector recognizes two sizes of particles, coarse and fine, and records data every minute, which provides unique time resolution in the observation of the effect of leaf blowers. The results show that the use of leaf blowers raises fine PM to 13.9 μg/m3 and coarse ones to 31.5 μg/m3, which increases the number 1.6 times and 1.7 times, respectively, when compared with normal median particle concentration. The particulate matter stays resuspended in the air for several minutes, creating a dust wave effect. Low-cost sensors, such as the Dylos, are proposed as a practical methodology to help local decision-makers incorporate environmental variables in decision-making.

Olea pollen concentrations have been studied in relation to the typology of air masses, pollen grain sources and marine nature during advections in a coastal enclave in the south-eastern Iberian Peninsula. Since Spain is the world's leading olive producer, and olive growing extends throughout the Mediterranean basin, this location is ideal for the study of long-distance transport events (LTD) during the main pollen season (MPS). The air masses were classified using the calculation of 48-h back trajectories at 250, 500 and 750 m above ground level using the HYSPLIT model. After that, the frequency of LDT events from Africa and Europe was found to be 8.7% of the MPS days. In contrast, regional air masses were found in 38.6% of the MPS days. This was reflected in pollen concentrations, with significantly higher concentrations (p-value

The global consumption of plastic is increasing year by year. The usage of plastic materials may generate small plastic fragments known as microplastics (MPs) which affect the quality of the air we breathe. In this study, a procedure based on thermogravimetry coupled to mass spectrometry (TGA-MS) has been developed to quantify polystyrene (PS) microplastics found in the atmosphere nearby an agricultural area. The quantification of PM10 fractions of airborne PS microplastics has been scarcely studied. For this purpose, around 50 mg of the fiberglass filters used for the airborne sample collection were pyrolyzed on the TGA instrument (40–800 °C) at 10 °C min−1. At the same time, sample mass loss and MS signal intensity of typical PS pyrolysis compounds were recorded. Limits of detection and quantification were 7.7 and 25.8 ng m−3, respectively. PS microplastic has been found in the studied atmosphere area at an average of 35.97 ng m−3, the potential contamination source being mainly related to agricultural activities. This works shows the potential of the hyphenated TGA-MS methodology as a complementary technique for microplastics characterization.

Olive cultivation is of great importance in Southern Europe but olive pollen is the leading cause of allergy in many regions where it is grown. The best preventive measure for allergic patients is to avoid exposure. Thus, aerobiological monitoring networks must supply realistic pollen classes for the different types of allergic pollen. Even though those pollen classes are defined, they do not necessarily fit local data. Altogether, they should use predictive models to assess flowering intensity in advance. In this study, the Olea pollen degree of exposure classes (OPDEC) are defined based on percentiles and a predictive model is suggested for Cartagena, Spain. 24year (1993-2016) Olea pollen counts series was used to characterize the Main Pollen Season (MPS). The aerobiological samples were processed following the methodology proposed by Hirst and developed by the Spanish Aerobiology Network. The aerobiological database was completed with the meteorological data supplied by AEMET (Spanish State Meteorological Agency). MPS evolution over time, and its relation with temperature and rainfall, has been analysed. The study showed an increase in MPS duration and the amount of Olea pollen grains collected both in MPS and the peak day. The OPDEC should fit local data to improve preventive measures. Based on the 24year series, the proposed OPDEC for Cartagena are: Low (≤10grains/m3), Medium (between 10 and 50grains/m3), High (between 51 and 100grains/m3) and Very High (≥100grains/m3). Olea pollen estimations in the MPS and in the peak day were obtained by means of three Regression Methods and climatic factors. The analysis reveals that the Bagging for Regression Trees (BRT) method is a good predictive alternative and stablishes the importance for each meteorological variable.

Species of the Amaranthaceae family are abundant in the Southeast of Spain, one of the driest areas in Europe. The Amaranthaceae include species of interest from the point of view of allergic diseases. With the expansion of aridity, many species belonging to this family will be favoured. The objectives of this study were: first, to define the prevalence of sensitization to Amaranthaceae pollen in allergic patients in the Southeast of Spain; second, to present the aerobiological features of this taxon; and, finally, to demarcate those periods of increased risk of suffering allergic symptoms with the aim of improving the diagnosis and prevention of hay fever. Skin prick tests with extracts of pollen were performed on patients with symptoms of respiratory allergy referred for consultation for the first time in Almeria and Murcia. Samples of the atmospheric bioaerosol were taken using a Lanzoni VPPS 2000 volumetric sampler, samples treatment and subsequent counts being carried out according to the methodology approved by the Spanish Aerobiological Network. The statistical significance of the correlation between aerobiological and meteorological data from this arid region in 2010–2014 was determined. The aerobiological study revealed the presence of two distinct peaks responsible for pollen symptoms. The flowering of this taxon is especially noteworthy in the city of Cartagena, where it supposes 94% of the total pollen collected in these periods. This situation converts Amaranthaceae pollen in the second leading cause of hay fever in the Southeast of Spain. With the expansion of aridity, an increase in the presence of these species is expected. Bearing in mind their prevalence in the spring and summer/autumn periods and their extensive presence in the bioaerosol, this makes data from Southeastern Spanish a benchmark with respect to the aerobiology of this type of pollen.

Aerobiological monitoring of Olea europaea L. is of great interest in the Mediterranean basin because olive pollen is one of the most represented pollen types of the airborne spectrum for the Mediterranean region, and olive pollen is considered one of the major cause of pollinosis in this region. The main aim of this study was to develop an airborne-pollen map based on the Pollen Index across a 4-year period (2008-2011), to provide a continuous geographic map for pollen intensity that will have practical applications from the agronomical and allergological points of view. For this purpose, the main predictor variable was an index based on the distribution and abundance of potential sources of pollen emission, including intrinsic information about the general atmospheric patterns of pollen dispersal. In addition, meteorological variables were included in the modeling, together with spatial interpolation, to allow the definition of a spatial model of the Pollen Index from the main olive cultivation areas in the Mediterranean region. The results show marked differences with respect to the dispersal patterns associated to the altitudinal gradient. The findings indicate that areas located at an altitude above 300ma.s.l. receive greater amounts of olive pollen from shorter-distance pollen sources (maximum influence, 27km) with respect to areas lower than 300ma.s.l. (maximum influence, 59km).

Source apportionment analysis was used to identify the factors contributing to atmospheric pollution at a monitoring location in the Southeast of Spain, a well documented area with an arid climate and high insolation favouring two sources of particulate matter: secondary transformation in the atmosphere and resuspension of crustal dry soils to the air. These conditions are further complicated by numerous industrial facilities in the area of the historical city of Cartagena. This paper describes the air quality of an area which includes a zinc metallurgical industry, a petrochemical factory, an oil power station, a shipyard and natural phenomena including African dust transport and resuspension of regional and/or local crustal materials. Major and trace element concentrations in PM10 and PM2.5 were determined at two monitoring stations in Cartagena (one PM10 sampler located at a traffic hotspot and the PM2.5 sampler at a suburban station), during 2004 and 2005. Results showed that in the PM10 fraction, the zinc metallurgical activity was linked to high levels of Cd, Zn and Pb; shipyard emission was associated with high levels of Cr and Ni; and high Ni and V levels were associated with the secondary aerosol indicating the contribution from oil combustion (oil-fired power station or petrochemical facilities). In the PM2.5 size fraction, the zinc source is defined by Zn and Pb; V, Ni and As appear with the oil combustion emissions. In contrast to PM10, shipyard activity is not consistently defined. Consistent sources found in both size fractions include crustal materials and traffic emissions.

Despite their significant role in source apportionment analysis, studies dedicated to the identification of tracer elements of emission sources of atmospheric particulate matter based on air quality data are relatively scarce. The studies describing tracer elements of specific sources currently available in the literature mostly focus on emissions from traffic or large-scale combustion processes (e.g. power plants), but not on specific industrial processes. Furthermore, marker elements are not usually determined at receptor sites, but during emission. In our study, trace element concentrations in PM10 and PM2.5 were determined at 33 monitoring stations in Spain throughout the period 1995–2006. Industrial emissions from different forms of metallurgy (steel, stainless steel, copper, zinc), ceramic and petrochemical industries were evaluated. Results obtained at sites with no significant industrial development allowed us to define usual concentration ranges for a number of trace elements in rural and urban background environments. At industrial and traffic hotspots, average trace metal concentrations were highest, exceeding rural background levels by even one order of magnitude in the cases of Cr, Mn, Cu, Zn, As, Sn, W, V, Ni, Cs and Pb. Steel production emissions were linked to high levels of Cr, Mn, Ni, Zn, Mo, Cd, Se and Sn (and probably Pb). Copper metallurgy areas showed high levels of As, Bi, Ga and Cu. Zinc metallurgy was characterised by high levels of Zn and Cd. Glazed ceramic production areas were linked to high levels of Zn, As, Se, Zr, Cs, Tl, Li, Co and Pb. High levels of Ni and V (in association) were tracers of petrochemical plants and/or fuel-oil combustion. At one site under the influence of heavy vessel traffic these elements could be considered tracers (although not exclusively) of shipping emissions. Levels of Zn–Ba and Cu–Sb were relatively high in urban areas when compared with industrialised regions due to tyre and brake abrasion, respectively.

Airborne pollen monitoring is an effective tool for studying the reproductive phenology of anemophilous plants, an important bioindicator of plant behavior. Recent decades have revealed a trend towards rising airborne pollen concentrations in Europe, attributing these trends to an increase in anthropogenic CO2 emissions and temperature. However, the lack of water availability in southern Europe may prompt a trend towards lower flowering intensity, especially in herbaceous plants. Here we show variations in flowering intensity by analyzing the Annual Pollen Index (API) of 12 anemophilous taxa across 12 locations in the Iberian Peninsula, over the last two decades, and detecting the influence of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO). Results revealed differences in the distribution and flowering intensity of anemophilous species. A negative correlation was observed between airborne pollen concentrations and winter averages of the NAO index. This study confirms that changes in rainfall in the Mediterranean region, attributed to climate change, have an important impact on the phenology of plants.

Air quality is a major issue for humans owing to the fact that the content of particles in the atmosphere has multiple implications for life quality, ecosystem dynamics and environment. Scientists are therefore particularly interested in discovering the origin of airborne particles. A new method has been developed to model the relationship between the emission surface and the total amount of airborne particles at a given distance, employing olive pollen and olive groves as examples. A third-degree polynomial relationship between the air particles at a particular point and the distance from the source was observed, signifying that the nearest area to a point is not that which is most correlated with its air features. This work allows the origin of airborne particles to be discovered and could be implemented in different disciplines related to atmospheric aerosol, thus providing a new approach with which to discover the dynamics of airborne particles.

This paper presents our reply to two questions posed by Dr. Millard concerning our paper Martinez-Garcia et al. [Martinez-Garcia MJ, Moreno JM, Moreno-Clavel JM, Vergara N, Garcia-Sanchez A, Guillamon A, Porti M, Moreno-Grau S. Heavy metals in human bones in different historical epochs. Sci Total Environ 2005;348:51–72], namely, whether diagenetic changes operating in human bones after burial and consideration of the physiological plausibility of the metal concentrations measured in such bones could invalidate the results presented in the aforementioned paper. In our reply, we show that diagenetic effects are not meaningful in our study and that the mathematical approach used by Millard to derive circulating blood concentration from bone levels is based on the incorrect manipulation of a statistical regression analysis and therefore is not valid. After exhaustively reviewing the two phenomena involved in Dr. Millard's questions as well as other concerns raised in his letter to the editor, we deem the three conclusions presented in Martinez-Garcia et al. [Martinez-Garcia MJ, Moreno JM, Moreno-Clavel J, Vergara N, Garcia-Sanchez A, Guillamon A, Porti M, Moreno-Grau S. Heavy metals in human bones in different historical epochs. Sci Total Environ 2005;348:51–72] to be entirely appropriate.

The concentration of the metals lead, copper, zinc, cadmium and iron was determined in bone remains belonging to 30 individuals buried in the Region of Cartagena dating from different historical periods and in eight persons who had died in recent times. The metals content with respect to lead, cadmium and copper was determined either by anodic stripping voltammetry or by atomic absorption spectroscopy on the basis of the concentrations present in the bone remains. In all cases, zinc and iron were quantified by means of atomic absorption spectroscopy. The lead concentrations found in the bone remains in our city are greater than those reported in the literature for other locations. This led to the consideration of the sources of these metals in our area, both the contribution from atmospheric aerosols as well as that from the soil in the area. Correlation analysis leads us to consider the presence of the studied metals in the analysed bone samples to be the consequence of analogous inputs, namely the inhalation of atmospheric aerosols and diverse contributions in the diet. The lowest values found in the studied bone remains correspond to the Neolithic period, with similar contents to present-day samples with respect to lead, copper, cadmium and iron. As regards the evolution over time of the concentrations of the metals under study, a clear increase in these is observed between the Neolithic period and the grouping made up of the Bronze Age, Roman domination and the Byzantine period. The trend lines used to classify the samples into 7 periods show that the maximum values of lead correspond to the Roman and Byzantine periods. For copper, this peak is found in the Byzantine Period and for iron, in the Islamic Period. Zinc shows an increasing tendency over the periods under study and cadmium is the only metal whose trend lines shows a decreasing slope.

In this article we report the relationships between heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Zn, Cu) in soil and settleable particulate matter using data from 6 yr at six different sampling points within Cartagena, a Spanish Mediterranean city. The use of enrichment factors and factor analysis allowed us to predict the major sources of these metals. Soils were classified as one of three types: soils from polluted zone L, soils from polluted zone Z, and non-polluted soils. Settleable particulate matter was also classified in the following three groups: Industrial zone, Urban zone, and Intermediate zone. Enrichment factors showed that soils from polluted zone L are enriched in Pb and Cd when compared with soils from polluted zone Z, and soils from polluted zone Z are enriched in Zn and Cu when compared with soils from polluted zone L. In this context, soils from polluted zones L and Z are identified as specific sources of metals in the settleable particulate matter samples. We also suggest the importance of anthopogenic contribution of metals to soil-enrichment from ancient times up to the present. This process was most severe during the XIX century, when our city suffered an important industrial development. The concentration of these heavy metals are also affected by regional meteorological conditions, which include scarce rainfalls and a significant wind dispersion of soil aerosols.

This article presents the results of the analysis of the metals lead, cadmium, copper, zinc and aluminum, conducted on a total of 112 soil samples arising from 57 sampling points, distributedthroughout the Cartagena area in southeastern Spain. Both, totalmetal content and soluble fraction (1 M nitric acid medium, exchangeable fraction) were analyzed. Soil samples were taken on the surface of the terrain and at a depth of 35 cm from eachsampling point. For the purposes of this study, sampling points were classified in three groups based on the results of previous research on air pollution in the region: clean areas,contaminated areas and vacant industrial areas. The statisticalanalyses of the results show no significant differences betweenthe surface samples and the 35 cm deep samples from all three areas. Lead, zinc and copper (soluble and total fractions) aresignificantly higher, and pH significantly lower, in the samples coming from the contaminated and vacant industrial areasthan in samples coming from the clean area. Total lead and cadmium are significantly higher in the vacant industrial areas(150 g kg-1 Pb and 9.3 g kg-1 Cd) than in the contaminated areas (5.2 g kg-1 Pb and 2.1 g kg-1 Cd).Iso-concentration maps have been prepared in order to correlatethe presence of metals with the industrial and mining activities in the region under study. These maps show a clear relationship between human activities and metal concentrationgradients, with peaks corresponding to both active and abandoned industrial and mining facilities.

This paper presents a simple, reliable, economical, safe, accurate and reproducible method for atmospheric aerosol lead determination in glass fiber filters, consisting on an acid digestion procedure and atomic absorption spectrometry quantification. The acid digestion is accelerated by the use of a microwave oven with capped Teflon PFA vessels, and a two steps power and time program. The mixture of 10 mL HNO3 and 1 mL HF was selected between many tries, for both economic and environmental reasons. The use of direct standards for quantification is proposed instead of added standards on filters, using background correction (deuterium lamp). The filter lead content quantification was carried out through blank analyses. Lead determinations were carried out then in 2629 samples of atmospheric aerosol at three sampling points in the city of Cartagena (Spain), from 1990 to 1994. We present the annual average of these values for each year and sampling location.

Ten years of public health interventions on industrial emissions to clean air were monitored for the Mediterranean city of Cartagena. During the 1960s, a number of large chemical and non-ferrous metallurgical factories were established that significantly deteriorated the city's air quality. By the 1970s, the average annual air concentration of sulfur dioxide (SO2) ranged from 200 to 300 A mu g/m(3) (standard conditions units). In 1979, the Spanish government implemented an industrial intervention plan to improve the performance of factories and industrial air pollution surveillance. Unplanned urban development led to residential housing being located adjacent to three major factories. Factory A produced lead, factory B processed zinc from ore concentrates, and factory C produced sulfuric acid and phosphates. This, in combination with the particular abrupt topography and frequent atmospheric thermal inversions, resulted in the worsening of air quality and heightening concern for public health. In 1990, the City Council authorized the immediate intervention at these factories to reduce or shut down production if ambient levels of SO2 or total suspended particles (TSP) exceeded a time-emission threshold in pre-established meteorological contexts. The aim of this research was to assess the appropriateness and effectiveness of the intervention plan implemented from 1992 to 2001 to abate industrial air pollution. The maximum daily 1-h ambient air level of SO2, NO2, and TSP pollutants was selected from one of the three urban automatic stations, designed to monitor ambient air quality around industrial emissions sources. The day on which an intervention took place to reduce and/or interrupt industrial production by factory and pollutant was defined as a control day, and the day after an intervention as a post-control day. To assess the short-term intervention effect on air quality, an ecological time series design was applied, using regression analysis in generalized additive models, focusing on day-to-day variations of ambient air pollutants levels. Two indicators were estimated: (a) appropriateness, the ratio between mean levels of the pollutant for control days versus the other days, and (b) effectiveness, the ratio between mean levels of the pollutant for post-control days versus the other days. Ratios in regression analyses were adjusted for trend, seasonality, temperature, humidity and atmospheric pressure, calendar day, and special events as well as the other pollutants. A total of 702 control days were made on the factories' industrial production during the 10-year period. Fifteen reductions and five shutdown control days took place at factory A for ambient air SO2. At factory B, more controls were carried out for the SO2 pollutant in the years 1992-1993 and 1997. At factory C, the control days for SO2 decreased from 59 reductions and 14 shutdowns to a minimum from 1995 onwards, whereas the controls on TSP were more frequent, reaching a maximum of 99 reductions and 47 shutdowns in the last year. SO2 ambient air mean levels ranged from 456 to 699 A mu g/m(3) among factories on reduction control days and between 624 and 1,010 A mu g/m(3) on shutdown days. The TSP ambient air mean levels were 428 and 506 A mu g/m(3) on reduction and shutdown days, respectively. For all types of control days and factories, a mean ratio of 104% (95% confidence interval [CI] 88 to 121) in SO2 levels was obtained and a mean ratio of 67% (95% CI 59 to 75) in TSP levels. Post-control days at all factories showed a mean ratio of -16% (95% CI -7 to -24) in SO2 levels and a mean ratio of -13% (95% CI -7 to -19) in TSP levels. Interventions on industrial production based on the urban SO2 and TSP ambient air levels were justified by the high concentrations detected. The best assessment of the interventions' effectiveness would have been to utilize the ambient air pollutant concentration readings from the entire time of the production shutdowns or reductions; however, the daily hourly maximum turned out to be a useful indicator because of meteorological factors influencing the diurnal concentration profile. A substantial number of interventions were carried out from 1 to 3 am, when vehicular traffic was minimum. On the other hand, atmospheric stability undergoes diurnal cycling in the autumn-winter period due to thermal inversion, which reaches maximum levels around daybreak. Therefore, this increases the ambient air levels and justified the interventions carried out at daybreak in spite of the traffic influence. All the interventions for SO2 and TSP were carried out when the measured ambient air levels of pollutants were exceeded, which shows the appropriateness of the intervention program. This excess was greater when intervening on SO2 than on the TSP levels. For both ambient air levels of SO2 and TSP, significant drops in air pollution were achieved from all three factories following activity reductions. The production shutdown controls were very effective, because they returned excess levels, higher than in the reduction controls, to everyday mean values. The Cartagena City observational system of intermittent control has proven to effectively reduce industrial emissions' impact on ambient air quality. This experienced model approach could serve well in highly polluted industrial settings. From a public health perspective, studies are needed to assess that the industrial interventions to control air pollution were related to healthier human populations. Legislation was needed to allow the public administration to take direct actions upon the polluting industries.

Average ranges of particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5) concentrations and chemical composition in Spain show significant variations across the country, with current PM10 levels at several industrial and traffic hotspots exceeding recommended pollution limits. Such variations and exceedances are linked to patterns of anthropogenic and natural PM emissions, climate, and reactivity/stability of particulate species. PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations reach 14–22 μg PM10 m−3 and 8–12 μg PM2.5 m−3 at most rural/regional background sites, 25–30 μg PM10 m−3 and 15–20μg PM2.5 m−3 at suburban sites, 30–46 μg PM10 m−3 and 20–30 μg PM2.5 m−3 at urban background and industrial sites, and 46–50 μg PM10 m−3 and 30–35 μg PM2.5 m−3 at heavy traffic hotpots. Spatial distributions show sulphate and carbon particle levels reach maxima in industrialised areas and large cities (where traffic emissions are higher), and nitrate levels increase from the Atlantic to the Mediterranean (independent of the regional NOx emissions). African dust outbreaks have an influence on the number of exceedances of the daily limit value, but its additional load on the mean annual PM10 levels is only highly significant in Southern Iberia and Canary and Balearic islands. The marine aerosol contribution is near one order of magnitude higher in the Canaries compared to the other regions. Important temporal influences include PM intrusion events from Africa (more abundant in February–March and spring–summer), regional-scale pollution episodes, and weekday versus weekend activity. Higher summer insolation enhances (NH4)2SO4 but depletes particulate NO3− (as a consequence of the thermal instability of ammonium nitrate in summer) and Cl− (due to HCl volatilisation resulting from the interaction of gaseous HNO3 with the marine NaCl), as well as generally increasing dry dust resuspension under a semi-arid climate. Average trace metal concentrations rise with the highest levels at industrial and traffic hotspots sites, in some cases (Ti, Cr, Mn, Cu, Zn, As, Sn, W, and Pb) exceeding rural background levels by over an order of magnitude.