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In the current study, 62 groundwater samples were collected (31 each in premonsoon and postmonsoon seasons) and analyzed for various physicochemical parameters and trace metals in the Trans-Varuna region, Uttar Pradesh. From the cationic fields of piper chart, it is viewed that 78% and 81% samples in premonsoon and postmonsoon, respectively, fall in no dominance type, while all the samples in postmonsoon and 97% samples in premonsoon fall in bicarbonate type in anionic facies. The Ca/Mg ratio with an average of 1.44 and 1.15 in pre-monsoon and post-monsoon correspondingly points out that carbonate dissolution is the leading cause of Ca in the Trans-Varuna region. A plot between [(Na + K) − Cl] and [(Ca + Mg) − (HCO3 − SO4)] suggests that ion exchange also add ions in the groundwater. According to the Gibbs plot, the hydrogeochemistry of samples signifies that most of the samples are from rock dominance. Saturation indices point out that the groundwater of the Trans-Varuna region is saturated with chalcedony, goethite, hematite, and quartz and undersaturated with reference to anhydrite, aragonite, gypsum, halite, and fluorite. 36% sample in premonsoon and 52% samples in postmonsoon shows high NO3 concentration which is above the WHO standard for drinking purpose. In terms of Fe, 74% of samples are beyond the permissible limit of WHO. Various indices to estimate the aptness of groundwater for agricultural function indicate that most of the samples in both the seasons are safe of farming uses. Chronic daily intake values show that infants and children of the investigative region are very vulnerable to nitrate contamination. Target health quotient of heavy metals was established in the sequence of Pb > Zn > Mn > Fe > Ni > Cu.

The current study intended to assess the hydrogeochemical processes and groundwater quality along with the identification of associated health risk by consuming the groundwater in the local population by collecting 70 groundwater samples for premonsoon and postmonsoon in the year 2015. Gibbs plot nominated that majority of the sample of Bhadohi is from rock dominance. The Ca/Mg ratio signifies that carbonate dissolution is the principal reason for Ca in the Bhadohi environs. Relatively high Na/Cl (> 1), K/Cl (> 0.02) and SO4/Cl (> 0.09) ratios are accredited to the influence of textile effluents on the groundwater. 45% sample in postmonsoon and 40% samples in premonsoon demonstrate high NO3 values which is exceeding the WHO standard for human drinking. Chronic daily intake (CDI) value demonstrates that the residents of the study region are at risk of nitrate contamination originated health hazards. About 48.5% of groundwater samples show a high concentration of iron. The HPI profile shows that 32% of the sample has high HPI values, 17% of the sample has a medium range of HPI, and 51% of the sample has a low value of HPI. Target health quotient values of trace metals in groundwater were in the order of Pb > Mn > Cr > Cd > Cu > Fe > Zn > Ni. The groundwater of the investigative area is fine for irrigation.

Potentially toxic elements (PTEs) are directly linked with various kinds of adverse health issues. Available reports related to symptoms of mercury contamination in the local population of the study region motivated us to carry out this work in detail. To estimate potentially toxic elements (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn) contamination status, a total of 48 samples of soilroad dust from industrial clusters were collected and analyzed for source identification and human health risk assessment in the Sonbhadra region of Uttar Pradesh, India. As per upper continental crust (UCC) for soil and road dust, the highest increment of As value in Obra and Hg value in Anpara was observed. The value of Hg exceeded the background value by 6.5 and 12.25 times in soil and 5 and 11.5 times in road dust of Obra and Anpara clusters, respectively. Contamination factor (CF) and Enrichment factor (EF) value in soil and road dust showed very strong contamination and significant enrichment of Hg whereas moderate contamination and moderate enrichment of As were observed in both the clusters. The hazard quotient (HQ) value of potentially toxic elements in soil and road dust of Obra and Anpara were found1 for three pathways in adults and children, except Fe for ingestion pathway for children in both clusters. The HQ value for adults was observed to be low compared to children. Cancer risk associated with potentially toxic elements in soil and road dust for both clusters were found safe (under the guideline 10

Warming of the earth is considered as the major adverse effect of climate change along with other abnormalities such as non-availability of water resources, decreased agriculture production, food security, rise in seawater level, glaciers melting, and loss of biodiversity. Over the years, decreased agriculture production and water quality degradation have been observed due to climatic abnormalities. Crop production is highly sensitive to climate. It gets affected by long-term trends in average rainfall and temperature, annual climate variations, shocks during different stages of growth, and extreme weather events. Globally, the areas sown for the major crops of barley, maize, rice, sorghum, soya bean, and wheat have all seen an increase in the percentage of area affected by drought as defined in terms of the Palmer Drought Severity Index since the 1960s, from approximately 5-10% to approximately 15-25%. Increase in temperature will be observed in terms of wheat yield losses - 5.5 ± 4.4% per degree Celsius for the United States, - 9.1 ± 5.4% per degree Celsius for India, and - 7.8 ± 6.3% per degree Celsius for Russia as these countries are more vulnerable to temperature increase. Water management through increasing storage capacity (or rainwater storage), fair policies for water supply and distribution, river health, and watershed management can reduce the negative effects of climate change on water resource availability. Similarly, climate change-resistant crop development, water management in irrigation, adapting climate-smart agriculture approach, and promoting indigenous knowledge can ensure the food security via increasing agricultural yield. Technical intervention can equip the farmers with the scientific analyses of the climatic parameters required for the sustainable agriculture management. These technologies may include application of software, nutrient management, water management practices, instruments for temperature measurement and soil health analysis etc. Holistic efforts of the stakeholders (farmers, local society, academia, scientists, policy makers, NGOs etc.) can provide better results to reduce the risks of climate change on agriculture and water resources as discussed in this paper. Graphical abstract.

Water is the most crucial commodity for life support process in organism. Water is basic and mandatory need for the humans and the entire living creature on earth. Therefore, the consumption of water by human should be safe, easily accessible, adequate and free from any kind of contamination. Pollutants in water bodies pose a severe threat to human health as well as aquatic ecosystem. There are numbers of water pollutant which has been categorized into inorganic pollutants, organic pollutants, pathogens, thermal pollution, and radioactive pollutants etc. In the current review an endeavor has been made to recognize the water pollution based on biological and chemical indicator and categorize the water pollutant on the basis of different source and origin. A brief discussion on different water pollutants, their source in atmosphere and impact on environment and human health is also done in this study. In this study a concise discussion has been done on some traditional water pollutants like nutrients (NO3 and PO4), Halogen (Cl, Br and F), heavy metals (Fe, Mn, Al, Cu, Zn, Pb, Cd, Cr, Ni and Hg), organic pollutants (POPs, EDS and pesticides), and microbial pollutants. Some emerging crisis related to water pollution in recent past is like microplastic, thermal pollution, radioactive pollution and suspended solids and sediments are also included in this study.

The present study assesses the pollution load of the groundwater with reference to the trace elements (i.e. As, Hg, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn, Ni, Co and Pb) and the potential health risk by its consumption for the residents of Obra, Renukoot and Anpara industrial clusters of Southern Sonbhadra, Uttar Pradesh, India. For this, 220 groundwater samples were collected during post- and premonsoon seasons in 2015. pH varied from slightly acidic to alkaline in both the seasons. Geochemical analysis of the area showed that all the three clusters are severely contaminated with Fe, Pb, Cd, Cr, As and Hg during both the seasons. High concentration of heavy metals indicates that groundwater was contaminated with natural as well as anthropogenic sources. For all the three clusters, the mean values of heavy metal pollution index were found above the critical index in both the seasons with Anpara in lead. For the majority of groundwater samples across the clusters during both the seasons, substantial non-cancer health risk was observed due to target hazard quotient values of Cr, Cd, As, Pb and Hg higher than unity. The hazard index value for children was very high compared to adults which means that children are more susceptible to health impairment in terms of non-carcinogenic health risk. Carcinogenic risk was higher for adults than children in the entire study area.

Water quality of Chilika lagoon was assessed for pre- and post-monsoon seasons. A marked spatial and temporal variability in the water quality was observed in this study. Principal component analysis (PCA) reveals the influence of salinity, anthropogenic factors, as well as vegetation on the water quality. The higher concentration of nitrate (NO3−) and phosphate (PO43−) in certain pockets of the lagoon water was due to the prevalence of agricultural, municipal, and domestic waste. A positive correlation between PO43− and DSi indicates their terrigenous input from freshwater influx. Cyclone Phailin had profound impact on several water quality parameters. pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), and dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) are governed largely by the presence of macrophytes. The impact of severe cyclone Phailin can be assessed from the very low salinity values persisting in the lagoon even 2.5 months after the cyclone hit Odisha coast. Some toxic heavy metals like Copper (Cu), Lead (Pb), Nickel (Ni), Cobalt (Co), Manganese (Mn), and Iron (Fe) exceeded the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) standards at many locations in both the seasons. Non-conservative behavior of nutrients indicates well mixed nature of lagoon which is also indicative of good primary productivity. Northern sector (NS) of the lagoon is susceptible to eutrophication being riverine influenced region. Southern sector has more stable ion chemistry as a result of least freshwater discharge, constant supply of saline water, and lesser water renewal.