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Long-term performance and fouling behavior of four full-scale nanofiltration (NF) plants, treating anoxic groundwater at 80% recovery for drinking water production, were characterized and compared with oxic NF and reverse osmosis systems. Plant operating times varied between 6 and 10 years and pretreatment was limited to 10 µm pore size cartridge filtration and antiscalant dosage (2–2.5 mg L −1 ) only. Membrane performance parameters normalized pressure drop (NPD), normalized specific water permeability ( K w ) and salt retention generally were found stable over extended periods of operation (>6 months). Standard acid–base cleanings (once per year or less) were found to be sufficient to maintain satisfying operation during direct NF of the described iron rich (≤8.4 mg L −1 ) anoxic groundwaters. Extensive autopsies of eight NF membrane elements, which had been in service since the plant startup (6–10 years), were performed to characterize and quantify the material accumulated in the membrane elements. Investigations using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), total organic carbon (TOC) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) measurements revealed a complex mixture of organic, biological and inorganic materials. The fouling layers that developed during half to one year of operation without chemical cleaning were very thin ( The high solubility of reduced metal ions and the very slow biofilm development under anoxic conditions prevented rapid fouling during direct NF of the studied groundwaters. When compared to oxic NF and RO systems in general (e.g. aerated ground waters or surface waters), the operation and performance of the described anoxic installations (with minimal pretreatment) can be described as very stable.

Drinking water utilities in Europe are faced with a growing presence of organic micropollutants in their water sources. The aim of this research was to assess the robustness of a drinking water treatment plant equipped with reverse osmosis and subsequent activated carbon filtration for the removal of these pollutants. The total removal efficiency of 47 organic micropollutants was investigated. Results indicated that removal of most organic micropollutants was high for all membranes tested. Some selected micropollutants were less efficiently removed (e.g. the small and polar NDMA and glyphosate, and the more hydrophobic ethylbenzene and napthalene). Very high removal efficiencies for almost all organic micropollutants by the subsequent activated carbon, fed with the permeate stream of the RO element were observed except for the very small and polar NDMA and 1,4-dioxane. RO and subsequent activated carbon filtration are complementary and their combined application results in the removal of a large part of these emerging organic micropollutants. Based on these experiments it can be concluded that the robustness of a proposed treatment scheme for the drinking water treatment plant Engelse Werk is sufficiently guaranteed.