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At the time of this writing, the U.S. Geological Survey estimates that the average American-born human will need millions of pounds of fuels, minerals, and other extracted resources in his or her lifetime. Mining is a critical global industry, spanning all but one continent (Antarctica), with the highest-producing countries being China, the United States, Russia, Australia, and India. Increasingly, this demand is driving mining companies to explore and pursue deeper mineral deposits as near-surface deposits deplete. Correspondingly, there has been a significant rise in industry interest in applying operations research techniques to improve underground mine planning. Newman et al. [Newman AM, Rubio E, Caro R, Weintraub A, Eurek K (2010) A review of operations research in mine planning. Interfaces 40(3):222–245] present a review of such techniques, applied to both open pit and underground mining operations. We focus here on the advancements since that publication and concentrate on underground applications in metalliferous deposits, such as copper, iron, and gold.

Stochastic integer programming (SIP) has recently been studied to manage the risk caused by geological uncertainty when solving mine planning and production scheduling problems of open pit mines. However, similar to other mathematical programming techniques that deploy integer variables, the main obstacle of applying SIP on real-life datasets stems from the enormous number of integer variables required by its mathematical formulation, which is a function of number of mining blocks being processed and lifespan of the mining project. In this paper, a new framework is proposed for stochastic mine planning process which makes the application of SIP on large-scale datasets tractable. Firstly, mining blocks of simulated orebody models are clustered using TopCone algorithm to significantly reduce the scale of the data. A new SIP model is then developed to work on aggregated blocks so not only the net present value (NPV) is maximised and the risk of not meeting production targets is minimised, but also solution can be obtained in a practical timeframe. The scheduling result of the new SIP model is also compared to an integer programming (IP) model to highlight the ability to manage risk and generating higher NPV on a case study of a large-scale multi-element iron ore deposit in Pilbara region, Western Australia.

The aim of this work was to study the petrography, geochemistry of the pegmatites, their relationship to the mineralisation in Gitarama and Gatumba areas, and current processes that occurred after the primary emplaced neoproterozoic rare element pegmatites. Previous works on pegmatites were geochemistry and geological maps which are not enough for focused exploration and mine planning. Therefore, geological, petrographic, geochemical studies of neoproterozoic rare element pegmatites of Gatumba and Gitarama areas in relation to their mineralisation were carried out. The samples were analysed for mineral assemblages by petrographic light microscope; major elements by ICP AES; trace and rare earth elements by ICP MS. Petrographic studies revealed the mineral assemblages included quartz, microcline, biotite and major muscovites, which implied that there was the process of muscovitisation occurred after the primary emplacement of pegmatites. The results of geochemical analysis revealed that the silica content (in wt%) ranges from 59.5 - 80.5 with an average of 67.13 (in wt%) for the weathered pegmatite in Gatumba area ,and high percentages of SiO2 (in wt%) range 73.9 - 75.0 with an average of 73.15 (in wt%) for fresh pegmatite in Gitarama area. The pegmatites from Gatumba area were altered and much enriched in Rb (227 - 3460 ppm), Cs (2.59 - 24.7 ppm), Ta (2.6 - 268 ppm), Li (40 - 9224 ppm), W (240 - 10,000 ppm), Nb (13 - 517 ppm), Sn (24 - 8870 ppm). Their enrichment is commonly used as a marker of a magmatic-hydrothermal alteration. Conversely, the pegmatites from Gitarama area showed the low to moderate concentrations in Rb (321 - 337 ppm), Cs (5.47 - 5.62 ppm), Ta (1.3 - 1.6 ppm), Li (~20 ppm), W (5540 - 6410 ppm), Nb (3.9 - 4.3 ppm), Sn (28 - 44 ppm). The variation plot of ratios: Al2O3/(Na2O + K2O) versus Al2O3/(CaO + Na2O + K2O) for the pegmatites from study areas are higher than one (A/NK vs. A/CNK > 1) indicating peraluminous, the other samples of pegmatites indicated metaluminous (A/NK > 1 and A/CNK ΣREE varying between 12.1 - 72.78 ppm and 45 - 54.37 ppm respectively, signifying low to medium form of enrichment. The pegmatite from Gatumba and Gitarama areas showed the K/Rb ratios ranging from 15.74 to 80.26 and from 190.41 to 199.39 respectively. As the pegmatite samples show K/Rb ratios less than 100 are commonly accepted for mineralization, therefore the pegmatites from Gatumba area were found mineralised, conversely to the pegmatite samples from Gitarama area, which were found barren.

Small-scale mining usually operates under high geological uncertainty conditions. This turns mine planning into a complex and sometimes inaccurate task, resulting in low productivity and substantial variability in the quantity and quality of the mineral products. This research demonstrates how the application of a novel methodology that relies on traditional and low-cost geophysical methods can contribute to mine planning in small-scale mining. A combination of resistivity and induced polarization methods is applied to enhance mine planning decision-making in three small-scale mining operations. This approach allows for the acquisition of new data regarding local geological settings, supporting geological modelling and enhancing decision-making processes for mine planning in a timely and low-cost fashion. The results indicate time savings of up to 77% and cost reductions of up to 94% as compared with conventional methods, contributing to more effective mine planning and, ultimately, improving sustainability in small-scale mining.

Production planning decisions in the mining industry are affected by geological, geometallurgical, economic and operational information. However, the traditional approach to address this problem often relies on simplified models that ignore the variability and uncertainty of these parameters. In this paper, two main sources of uncertainty are combined to obtain multiple simulated block models in an iron ore deposit that include the rock type and seven quantitative variables (grades of Fe, SiO2, S, P and K, magnetic ratio and specific gravity). To assess the effect of integrating these two sources of uncertainty in mine planning decision, stochastic and deterministic production scheduling models are applied based on the simulated block models. The results show the capacity of the stochastic mine planning model to identify and minimize risks, obtaining valuable information in ore content or quality at early stages of the project, and improving decision-making with respect to the deterministic production scheduling. Numerically speaking, the stochastic mine planning model improves 6% expected cumulative discounted cash flow and generates 16% more iron ore than deterministic model.

Since the Gol-Gohar iron ore mine (GGIOM), which is located in southeastern Iran, is currently one of the biggest iron mines in this region, increasing the accuracy of its mineral resources model has become a challenge for geologists, metallurgists and mining engineers. Given that an accurate classification of the mining blocks into ore or waste is highly significant in strategic mine planning, three approaches for simulating the iron grades were compared against the true grades obtained from production data. The comparison was done by calculating the ratio between the total number of blocks correctly classified as ore and waste and the total number of misclassified blocks, and it was conducted for each approach in three mined benches at the GGIOM. The results reveal that the grade simulation that ignores the geological boundaries and the grade simulation based on a deterministic geological interpretation are much less accurate than the hierarchical approach, which consists of simulating both the geological boundaries and the grades.

There is no dispute about the advances in numerical modelling for rock mechanics applications following its debut in engineering science some 50 years ago. Significant strides have been made since the days of punch cards and line printers, with modelling tools now being easy to use and capable of replicating many, but not all, aspects of rock behaviour. This paper explores some common rock mechanics problems in underground mining, and how these have been addressed through numerical modelling. The described issues include pillar design, ground support, caving prediction and ground subsidence, and mining-induced seismicity. Examples of how modelling technology has evolved over the years are given, while also pointing out current gaps and limitations in the technology. Finally, an outlook for the future is presented, including some of the challenges we are facing. An increased fundamental understanding of many rock mechanics issues is still required, but eventually one may envision a deep integration of rock mechanical modelling into mine planning and production, for a more sustainable future mining.

As mineral resources exhausted in near-surface deposits of the earth crust, mining operations focus on going more in-depth. Increasing environmental concerns make underground mining more preferable because it is less harmful than surface mining. On the other hand, high operating costs of underground mining bring significant challenges to mining companies. To deal with the challenges associated with high operating costs of underground mining, the mining companies put their efforts to reduce cost and increase the efficacy of mining practices. In current practice, the problem is divided into three sub-problems: stope layout optimization, access road and network, and stope sequencing. Effects of this division on the optimality and computational efficiency are discussed. This paper also analyses recent developments in underground mining planning in such a way as to enhance the efficacy of the operations. New research avenues are proposed.

Chalk occurs in northern Europe from the southern UK to eastwards deep into Russia. It is exploited as an industrial mineral for a large variety of uses. From the examples of three different chalk mining operations, it is shown that although geologically and geochemically quite similar, all three deposits have very different physical and geomechanical properties which in turn have impacts on slope designs as well as mining method, mine planning and equipment selection.

Mineral projects are composed of geological, operational and market uncertainties, and reducing these uncertainties is one of the objectives of engineering. Most surveys assess the impact of geological and operational uncertainties on the mining planning. The objective of this work is to study the impact of market uncertainty on the mineral activity. The influence of iron ore price simulation on mining sequencing will be evaluated. The price of iron ore has random behavior that is best represented by the Geometric Brownian Movement system. This study analyzed the historical series of iron ore in order to determine the percentage volatility and drift. Traditionally, a constant and deterministic price is used for the ore mined in all periods of a mineral project. The direct block scheduling methodology was adopted because it is able to apply the appropriate financial discount factor to the simulated probabilistic price. The proposed methodology was able to quantify the market uncertainty.

In the last 20 years, there has been increasing interest in using advanced simulation and optimization techniques to develop and manage mineral resources and petroleum reservoirs. Researchers in mining and oil have been working on related research themes, with similar goals, but there has not been much interaction between their developments. In an attempt to address this lack of interaction, this paper provides a review of recent optimization techniques developed for the most commonly studied aspects of mine planning and oil field development, indicating how the two scientific communities can benefit from each other by adapting and applying knowledge gained in the respective fields. It also points out research directions for both mine planning and oil field development.

The traditional mine planning framework employs a flawed approach in the design of ultimate pit limits and phases. Conventional methods arbitrarily confine the mine’s extraction schedule during the initial stages, detracting from its optimality before it is created. This work aims to provide a method by which a mine’s phase design is created from an optimal extraction schedule. The schedule-based approach to phase design yields implementable mining phases that mimic the initial raw optimal schedule from which it is based. An attempt to minimise the trade-off between mineability and value is inherent to the approach.

The objective of this study is to integrate the admissible factor of safety (FoS) into the mine planning. The analysis showed, as expected, that a lower net present value (NPV) is obtained with the increase in the admissible FoS. Most importantly, it demonstrated that the FoS of the slopes of the adjacent phases, which are not part of the final pit, are considerably greater than the admissible FoS. Therefore, the NPV of an open pit mine project can be increased by steepening the slopes of adjacent phases that are not part of the final pit walls.

Why do some room and pillar retreat panels encounter abnormal conditions? What factors deserve the most consideration during the planning and execution phases of mining and what can be done to mitigate those abnormal conditions when they are encountered? To help answer these questions, and to determine some of the relevant factors influencing the conditions of room and pillar (R & P) retreat mining entries, four consecutive R & P retreat panels were evaluated. This evaluation was intended to reinforce the influence of topographic changes, depth of cover, multiple-seam interactions, geological conditions, and mining geometry. This paper details observations were made in four consecutive R & P retreat panels and the data were collected from an instrumentation site during retreat mining. The primary focus was on the differences observed among the four panels and within the panels themselves. The instrumentation study was initially planned to evaluate the interactions between primary and secondary support, but produced rather interesting results relating to the loading encountered under the current mining conditions. In addition to the observation and instrumentation, numerical modeling was performed to evaluate the stress conditions. Both the LaModel 3.0 and Rocscience Phase 2 programs were used to evaluate these four panels. The results of both models indicated a drastic reduction in the vertical stresses experienced in these panels due to the full extraction mining in overlying seams when compared to the full overburden load. Both models showed a higher level of stress associated with the outside entries of the panels. These results agree quite well with the observations and instrumentation studies performed at the mine. These efforts provided two overarching conclusions concerning R & P retreat mine planning and execution. The first was that there are four areas that should not be overlooked during R & P retreat mining: topographic relief, multiple-seam stress relief, stress concentrations near the gob edge, and geologic changes in the immediate roof. The second is that in order to successfully retreat an R & P panel, a three-phased approach to the design and analysis of the panel should be conducted: the planning phase, evaluation phase, and monitoring phase. Keywords: Room and pillar, Retreat mining, Deep cover, Safety, Multiple seam

The surface mine planning and optimisation techniques such as block modelling, pit optimisation, scheduling, stockpiling and reconciliation that are and have been applied at an existing iron ore open pit operation are discussed in this report. The material of economic interest is separated as ON grade, OFF grade and Waste. There is a Mineral Resource Management (MRM) department that includes geology, rock engineering and planning; however, survey is excluded from the MRM structure, which is outside the traditional MRM hierarchy. Mine planning begins with a block model which is created through the Datamine software using information from exploration drilling. The block model is used in the whittle software to obtain an ultimate pit outline. The outline is used to create an ultimate pit design with the recommended geotechnical parameters. The mining block model is further used in the mine planning process. Life of mine plans, 12-month rolling plans and six-week plans are done. Stockpiling is included in the plans and there is a strategy in place to reduce the stockpiles. The material movement is done through load and haul using trucks and shovels. Reconciliation was considered and it was found that there was not a proper reconciliation process for the iron ore mine.

Mine planning is a very important process which is undertaken along the mine value chain. In an ideal setting, mine plans should be sufficiently robust to ensure that actual performance is as close to or the same as planned outcomes both in the short and long term. However, this is often not the case and in recent years financiers of mining projects have sometimes resorted to litigating against project proponents, claiming that they were misled into investing in projects that failed to deliver on promised outcomes. These challenges require that more research be undertaken on how robust mine plans can be generated and evaluated to reduce discrepancies between planned and actual outcomes. Accordingly, research findings towards closing the gap between planned and actual outcomes are presented based on lessons learnt from some of the mine planning related postgraduate research work that has recently been undertaken or is currently under way in the School of Mining Engineering at the University of the Witwatersrand.

Best practise environmental and social processes for mine closure at the time of decommissioning are well documented; however mine closure is often not given the recognition that it warrants during early mine planning phases. While it is recognised that mine closure and its associated costs need to be fully incorporated into the life of mine planning process, it is often not to the extent that it should be. This paper seeks to quantify the value that may be lost if closure planning is not adequately considered in life of mine planning and the difference in the mine plan between scenarios that adequately consider closure costs and those that do not. To demonstrate this, a case study is introduced for the purpose of investigating the effect of mine closure on various aspects of the mine design of a two dimensional copper deposit. Results indicate that mining operations may benefit from an altered mine plan whereby mine life is extended due to the time value of money aspect associated with closure. In addition to increasing the Net Present Value (NPV), the other significant finding is that this may also significantly improve resource recovery for minimal additional environmental disruption. It is demonstrated that mine closure needs to be incorporated as part of the optimal mine planning process from the very outset. It is also suggested that orebody characteristics such as size, shape, grade and dip are key variables in the closure cost/mine plan relationship. Mine closure and its associated costs need to be incorporated into the mine planning process to thus play a significant role in determining the ultimate pit limit, pushback design, production schedule, mine life, resource recovery and ultimately the profitability and NPV of an operation.

Stochastic mine planning algorithms have been extended to better represent ore selection decisions. Under geological uncertainty, existing algorithms generate plans that may violate the mineral processing capacity; under such geological scenarios, the excess ore undergoes a recourse action which is not as profitable as regular processing, hence decreasing the net present value. This decrease has previously been represented as a penalty on excess ore, which may not accurately represent actual operations. The new framework considers the most typical recourse: increasing the cut-off grade into the mineral process. This approach is demonstrated by adapting the VND algorithm of Lamghari et al.

Dig-limit optimization is an operational decision making problem that significantly affects the value of open-pit mining operations. Traditionally, dig-limits have been drawn by hand and can be defined as classifying practical ore and waste boundaries suiting equipment sizes in a bench. In this paper, an optimization approach based on a genetic algorithm (GA) was developed to approximate optimal dig-limits on a bench, given grade control data, equipment constraints, processing, and mining costs. A case study was conducted on a sample disseminated nickel bench, in a two destination and single ore-type deposit. The results from using the GA are compared to hand-drawn results. The study shows that GA-based approach can be effectively used for dig-limit optimization.

This study presents a comprehensive mathematical formulation model for a short-term open-pit mine block sequencing problem, which considers nearly all relevant technical aspects in open-pit mining. The proposed model aims to obtain the optimum extraction sequences of the original-size (smallest) blocks over short time intervals and in the presence of real-life constraints, including precedence relationship, machine capacity, grade requirements, processing demands and stockpile management. A hybrid branch-and-bound and simulated annealing algorithm is developed to solve the problem. Computational experiments show that the proposed methodology is a promising way to provide quantitative recommendations for mine planning and scheduling engineers.

The authors provide their assessment of current challenges in strategic mine planning and some approaches for addressing them. Challenges covered are quantification of downstream processes and their integration into orebody models; spatial characterisation of geometallurgical variables and their integration into block models, scheduling and mine optimisation; spatial characterisation of new variables for new types of mining; flexibility in planning and design to manage risk and minimise its impact; IT infrastructure for rapid on-line data collection and processing. Most of these challenges require new types of data, variables, modelling and estimation methods. Foremost among new variable types are geometallurgical and dynamic rock mass characterisation variables. New types of data and data collection include rapid generation of very large amounts of on-line sensor data and the consequent need for rapid processing and modelling of these data. The paper includes examples of models and outputs to illustrate ...

A mining complex may be comprised of multiple components, including open-pit and underground operations. Traditional approaches in mine planning do not account for the various components simultaneously leading to under-value solutions. Over the last decade, some methods have been developed to incorporate multiple components of the mining value chain during optimisation. Even though these new methods incorporate more decisions and flexibility to the optimisation of a mining complex, they may either ignore uncertainties associated with the mining project or consider decisions taken before optimisation. This paper presents a method that optimises mining complexes comprised of multiple open-pits, underground operations and processing destinations. Mining, blending, processing and transportation decision variables are simultaneously optimised while accounting for geological uncertainty. The method uses a simulated annealing algorithm at different decision levels in order to generate a stochastic-based extracti...

Operations research has been applied to open pit mine planning since 1960s. This approach has proved its ability in optimising mine planning problems, including long-term and shortterm production scheduling, ultimate pit limit, mine design and mining equipment dispatching. In this paper, we review the history and methodology of applying operations research in long-term production scheduling and a case study in Sin Quyen copper deposit, Vietnam.

Presidential address presented at the The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy Annual General Meeting on 11 August 2016.

Mineral economics 31(3), 319-336 (2018). doi:10.1007/s13563-018-0143-1, Published by Springer, Berlin

A new mine planning optimisation software tool called Blasor has been developed and implemented at BHP Billiton’s Yandi Joint Venture operation in the Pilbara. Blasor is specifically configured for designing and optimising the long-term pit development plan for the multi-pit blended-ore operation at Yandi. It is used for optimal design of the ultimate pits and the mining phases contained within those pits. In designing the mining phases, Blasor ensures that all market tonnage, grade and impurity constraints are observed whilst maximising the nett discounted cash flow (DCF) of the joint venture operation.

Weak rocks encountered in open pit mines cover a wide variety of materials, with properties ranging between soil and rock. As such, they can provide a significant challenge for the slope designer. For these materials, the mass strength can be the primary control in the design of the pit slopes, although structures can also play an important role. Because of the typically weak nature of the materials, groundwater and surface water can also have a controlling influence on stability. Guidelines for Open Pit Slope Design in Weak Rocks is a companion to Guidelines for Open Pit Slope Design, which was published in 2009 and dealt primarily with strong rocks. Both books were commissioned under the Large Open Pit (LOP) project, which is sponsored by major mining companies. These books provide summaries of the current state of practice for the design, implementation and assessment of slopes in open pits, with a view to meeting the requirements of safety, as well as the recovery of anticipated ore reserves. This book, which follows the general cycle of the slope design process for open pits, contains 12 chapters. These chapters were compiled and written by industry experts and contain a large number of case histories. The initial chapters address field data collection, the critical aspects of determining the strength of weak rocks, the role of groundwater in weak rock slope stability and slope design considerations, which can differ somewhat from those applied to strong rock. The subsequent chapters address the principal weak rock types that are encountered in open pit mines, including cemented colluvial sediments, weak sedimentary mudstone rocks, soft coals and chalk, weak limestone, saprolite, soft iron ores and other leached rocks, and hydrothermally altered rocks. A final chapter deals with design implementation aspects, including mine planning, monitoring, surface water control and closure of weak rock slopes. As with the other books in this series, Guidelines for Open Pit Slope Design in Weak Rocks provides guidance to practitioners involved in the design and implementation of open pit slopes, particularly geotechnical engineers, mining engineers, geologists and other personnel working at operating mines.

An optimal layout or three-dimensional spatial distribution of stopes guarantees the maximum profitability over life span of an underground mining operation. Thus, stope optimization is one of the key areas in underground mine planning practice. However, the computational complexity in developing an optimal stope layout has been a reason for limited availability of the algorithms offering solution to this problem. This article shares a new and efficient heuristic algorithm that considers a three-dimensional ore body model as an input, maximizes the economic value, and satisfies the physical mining and geotechnical constraints for generating an optimal stope layout. An implementation at a copper deposit demonstrates the applicability and robustness of the algorithm. A parallel processing based modification improving the performance of the original algorithm in terms of enormous computational time saving is also presented. Keywords: Stope optimization, Underground mining, Underground mine planning, Heuristic algorithm

Identification of various mineralized zones in an ore deposit is essential for mine planning and design. This study aims to distinguish the different mineralized zones and the wall rock in the Central block of North Anomaly iron ore deposit situated in Bafq (Central Iran) utilizing the concentration-number (C-N) and concentration-volume (C-V) fractal models. The C-N model indicates four mineralized zones described by Fe thresholds of 8%, 21%, and 50%, with zones 50% Fe representing wall rocks and highly mineralized zone, respectively. The C-V model reveals geochemical zones defined by Fe thresholds of 12%, 21%, 43% and 57%, with zones

This paper details the development and evaluation of a recently created dozer push program, ‘Dump Designer’ that was used to maximise dozer push horizons at Commodore Coal Mine in the Surat Basin, QLD, Australia. The necessary data required for Dump Designer were collected from the geological model of Commodore. From this, Dump Designer was trialled and the dozer push horizons were maximised wherever possible. Operating costs were then applied to show the benefits of maximising waste allocated to dozers. After processing 556 mining blocks, it was concluded that the coal dip significantly affects the amount of waste the dozers are able to push. It was also found that there are some implementation constraints with regards to mine planning that may prevent the dozers from being able to work to maximum dozer push horizons.

This paper presents a mixed integer programming formulation dealing with the effective minimisation of risk incurred when optimizing mining production rates in such a way that production targets are met in the presence of geological uncertainty. This is developed through the concept of a “stable solution domain” that provides all feasible combinations of ore and waste extraction for the ultimate pit limit of a given deposit, independent of the geological risk. The proposed formulation provides an optimal annual extraction rate, together with the optimal utilization of a mining fleet and an equipment acquisition program. This solution eliminates unnecessary capital expenses and is feasible under all geological scenarios. The mathematical programming model is detailed and tested at a gold deposit. The results are used as input to a production schedule design and are compared to the schedule generated using a constant mining rate; the comparison shows that about 40% of equipment acquisition can be delayed for 7 years and mill demand still be met, thus maximizing profit and minimizing costs.

Methodology for long-term underground lead-zinc mine planning based on fuzzy inventory theory is presented in this paper. We developed a fuzzy stochastic model of inventory control problem for planning lead-zinc ore production under uncertainty. The final purpose of this article is to find the optimal quantity of mined ore that should be stockpiled, in order to enable “feeding” of mineral processing plant in cases when the production in underground mine is interrupted, by using Possibilistic mean value of fuzzy number for defuzzing the fuzzy total annual inventory costs, and by using Extension of the Lagrangean method for solving inequality constrain problem. The different types of costs involved in mined ore inventory problems affect the efficiency of production scheduling. Dynamic nature of lead and zinc metal price is described by Ornstein-Uhlenbeck stochastic mean reverting process. The model is illustrated with a numerical example.

Cigar Lake is a high-grade uranium deposit, located in northern Saskatchewan, Canada. In order to extract the uranium ore remotely, thus ensuring minimal radiation dose to workers and also to access the ore from stable ground, the Jet Boring System (JBS) was developed by Cameco Corporation. This system uses a high-powered water jet to remotely excavate cavities. Survey data is required to determine the final shape, volume, and location of the cavity for mine planning purposes and construction. This paper provides an overview of the challenges involved in remotely surveying a JBS-mined cavity and studies the potential use of a time-of-flight (ToF) camera for remote cavity surveying. It reports on data collected and analyzed from inside an experimental environment as well as on real data acquired on site from the Cigar Lake and Rabbit Lake mines.

Integrated coal mine planning requires integration of mine planning technical inputs like survey, geology, planning, mining, processing, and finance. A comprehensive strategy on tracking, measuring, and reconciling coal from the mine plan to the customer is needed to achieve this. The ultimate aim is to have confidence in the coal measurement, accounting, and reporting processes so that the effectiveness of the entire planning process can be measured for compliance with business standards. For such leading practice it is necessary to determine measurement protocols at carefully selected measuring points. The design of such critical measurement points to allow for integrity and accurate reconciliation in the context of integrated mine planning is the topic of this article, with reference to a typical surface (dragline) coal mine operation. A general surface coal mine flow diagram was developed. For a flow and distribution system for such a mine, five critical measurement points are expected. These are the output of mine planning and scheduling process; post-mining pit survey and highwall mapping; the quantity and quality of feed material; quantity and quality of coal product; and the coal distribution process which extends from the product to the preparation plant and point of sale to the customer. In order to prevent inherent human errors, key data must be captured and recorded electronically and automatically. A digital mining approach allowing for automation tracking, measuring, reconciling and reporting of coal along the value chain is recommended.

For over 50 years, raisebore drilling technology has been successfully employed for vertical mine development in mines around the world. In the early days, raiseboring was limited to small-diameter (< 2 m) raises; but with time the method has evolved so that boreholes greater than 5 m are now routinely completed without incident. One important evolution is the Rotary Vertical Drilling System (RVDS) to maintain verticality of boreholes. This technology enables the effective development of hoisting shafts using accurately controlled vertical raisebored excavations. Mine planners must now consider using raiseboring techniques not only for small-diameter raises, but for largediameter vertical development, including ventilation, secondary egress and hoisting shafts. This paper provides insight into the important considerations for large-diameter raiseboring projects. This includes an examination of methods to assess geotechnical risk for large-diameter raiseboring projects, including the commonly employed McCracken and Stacy (1989) method. Examples of recent, prominent large-diameter raiseboring projects are also profiled to show the diverse range of projects which have been able to take advantage of modern raisebore technology.

Modern large-scale open pit mines move hundreds of thousands of tonnes of material daily, from the loading sources to the destination zones, whether these are massive mine dumps or, to a lesser extent, to the grinding mills. Mine dumps can be classified as leach or waste dumps, depending upon their economic viability to be processed in-place, a condition that has experienced great progress in the last decades and has reconfigured the open pit haulage network with an increase in the number of dumps. Therefore, new methods for dump design optimization are of the highest priority in mine planning management. This paper presents a methodology to model and optimize the design of a dump by minimizing the total haulage costs. The location and design of these dumps will be given mainly by the geological characteristics of the mineral, tonnage delivered, topographical conditions, infrastructure capital and transportation costs. Spatial and physical design possibilities, in addition, provide a set of parameters of mathematical and economic relationship that creates opportunities for modelling and thus facilitates the measurement and optimization of ultimate dump designs. The proposed methodology consists of: (1) Formulation of a dump model based on a system of equations relying on multiple relevant parameters; (2) Solves by minimizing the total cost using linear programming and determines a “preliminary” dump design; (3) Through a series of iterations, changes the “preliminary” footprint by projecting it to the topography and creates the ultimate dump design. Finally, an application for a waste rock dump illustrates this methodology.

This paper describes a process for optimising mine schedules with ventilation constraints using the Schedule Optimization Tool (SOT), the Ventilation Constraint Module (VCM) and a ventilation network solver (Ventsim). The VCM was developed as a component of MIRARCO’s SOT+ research project. Proper ventilation is critical for underground mines to operate safely, yet it is often not adequately considered early in the mine planning cycle. The need to account for ventilation early in the long-term planning cycle motivated the development of the VCM. The VCM generates constraints on the schedule of mining activities for each zone and for each stage of the mine life, based on available airflows. These constraints are intended to ensure that a mine schedule will be feasible from a ventilation perspective. Adhering to these ventilationbased constraints, as well as other constraints related to the project, SOT maximises the net present value (NPV) of the long-term schedule. The VCM will also assist the user in identifying opportunities to redistribute the airflow in the mine in ways that support higher-NPV schedules. A case study for a hypothetical underground mine will be presented, showing that the VCM supports the generation of optimised life-of-mine schedules that adhere to realistic ventilation constraints.

This paper first discusses the basic attributes of sustainable mining and the responsibilities of various steak holders including mining companies, governments, and engineers. It is followed by a brief overview of the current practice on regulations, inspections, waste management and mine closure planning in Canadian mining industry. A case study is then presented as an example of sustainable mining where mine planning, mineral recovery, environment protection, reclamation and community development were integral parts of the overall strategy. A comparison of the mine site before and after mining is made to demonstrate the "best practice" in modern mining.

The future of mining will be characterized not only by the application of modern technology, but also by the harmonization of economic, environmental and social issues. These areas set major future challenges which are complex and demand extensive knowledge. As an example, mining of highly complex orebodies for the supply of often critical raw materials, needs to consider technically demanding and cost-intensive extraction issues. The amount of tailings, which need to be stored, increases with the amount of ore mined. Therefore, the negative impact on environment and society increases. Hence mining becomes expensive with regard to all three aspects: economy, environment and society. In view of a sustainable mining practice this challenge should be used as an opportunity. The positive impact should be maximized for present and future generations. The objective is to create and use the mining openings in an optimum way related to sustainability. The approach of Blue Mining, which focuses on energy and ergonomics in the field of Sustainable Development, enhances the closure planning by recommending subsequent usage of such openings for energy storage. The approach fosters among others the implementation of the 7th Goal for Sustainable Development defined by the United Nations with the assurance of access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all. The usage of underground storage increases the stability of solar and water power usage, which are otherwise unreliable. Blue Mining embeds these issues in the main planning effort long before groundbreaking. This approach involves experience from past and current projects. This paper introduces the concept of Blue Mining with respect to post-mining utilization of a mine for energy storage. Methods and perspectives are presented with examples covering best-practices and lessons-learned.

With the unprecedented rate of mining and mineral processing over the past decade, there has been an increasing level of concern worldwide about the fate of tailings and the irreversible consequences of contaminant release through dust, tailings dam seepage, dam wall failure, or direct disposal of tailings into waterways. It is likely that in the future the mining of higher tonnages of lower grade ore and the possibility of more extreme weather events associated with global climatic change, may increase the risks associated with mine tailings management. In this paper we review alternative tailings management methods that aim to improve environmental, social and economic outcomes. Three approaches in particular are highlighted: paste and thickened tailings; tailings reuse, recycling and reprocessing; and proactive management (e.g. the integration of sulphide flotation with cemented paste backfill). The aim of the present study is to scope the opportunities that could be gained by developing an integrated research framework that traces tailings properties back to the orebody. In the future models could be constructed to optimise environmental, social and economic outcomes of tailings management across the value chain through integrated orebody characterisation, mine planning, processing, disposal, re-processing, recycling and reuse.

Open pit mine design and production scheduling deals with the quest for most profitable mining sequence over the life of a mine. The dynamics of mining ore and waste, and spatial grade uncertainty make predictions of the optimal mining sequence a challenging task. Valuation and related decision-making in surface mining require the assessment and management of orebody risk in the generation of a pit design and long term production scheduling. As the most profitable mining sequence over de life of a mine determines both economic outcome of a project and the technical plan to be followed from mine development to mine closure, the adverse effects of orebody risk on performance is critical and are documented in various studies. Ignoring such a consequential source of risk and uncertainty may lead to unrealistic production plans. This paper presented a set of procedures that enable mine planning engineers to carry out a series of analysis, which can be used to evaluate the sensitivity of incremental pit shells and pit designs to grade uncertainty. The results obtained from the analysis have shown to provide valuable information, which can be used to develop mining strategies that are risk resilient in relation to grade uncertainty. A real life application at Sossego copper mine ensure that such procedures are technically implementable, supporting decision-making as (a) in-fill drilling programs; (b) review of mining sequence; (c) identification of areas of upside potential and downside risk and (d) ore blending between mining areas in order to minimize the impact of high risk areas. The goal of this work is to provide an approach for clear risk analysis and management in mine planning cycle to various aspects of pit optimisation and design, resulting in more technically and economically sustainable life-of-mine production plans and mineral reserve depletion.

Cost reduction via optimising the scheduling of waste rock placement has a very high potential of success, as large volumes of waste rock are involved in operating an open pit mine, along with high rehabilitation costs. Such scheduling must satisfy both mine planning and environmental considerations, for which mixed integer programming (MIP) models are a well suited methodology. A base MIP model, along with two variants, is created and implemented for a hypothetical mine site. Upon solving the MIP problem with more than two million possible combinations, optimised waste rock placement schedules are automatically generated. The detailed schedules will assist mine planning engineers in mine design and in improving the environmental performance of a waste rock dump.

The authors have developed two software tools, PUNO and DOT, for optimally designing the layout of the system of tunnels in an underground mine, known as the access network for the mine. We recently applied these tools, which use principles from geometric optimization, to ore deposits at the Prominent Hill mine in South Australia and the Leeville gold mine in Nevada. When we compared the designs that the tools generated with the designs prepared by mining engineers, we found that our tools generated designs more quickly, were at least as cost efficient, and often revealed new design options by which the engineers’ original designs could be improved.

One of the most critical and complicated steps in mine planning is the selection of a suitable layout based on geological, geographical, geotechnical and economical parameters. These parameters influence the choice of different layouts of coal mine workings and normally examined on the basis of experience gained in the coalfields. The wide ranging combinations of geological, geotechnical and mining conditions make the selection of the optimum design and layout for a particular situation a difficult task. Variations in these parameters result in multiple feasible mine layouts; where each layout entails some inherent problems and the optimal layout is the one that offers the least problems. These variations in designs result in complex multi-decision situations that cannot be solved by a simple technique. This study applies the analytical hierarchy process in selection of the most viable panel orientation for a longwall operation. A back analysis of this technique was conducted at a mine located in Central Queensland, Australia. The geological and geotechnical aspects of the mine resulted in variations in the recommended panel orientations. Three different mine layouts with variable geological and geotechnical impacts were evaluated and the optimum mine layout was determined. This study also challenged the viability of the results obtained by performing a consistency check at every critical stage of the project.