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In wireless sensor networks, the implementation of clustering and routing protocols has been crucial in prolonging the network's operational duration by conserving energy. However, the challenge persists in efficiently optimizing energy usage to maximize the network's longevity. This paper presents CHHFO, a new protocol that combines a fuzzy logic system with the collaborative Harris Hawks optimization algorithm to enhance the lifetime of networks. The fuzzy logic system utilizes descriptors like remaining energy, distance from the base station, and the number of neighboring nodes to designate each cluster head and establish optimal clusters, thereby alleviating potential hot spots. Moreover, the Collaborative Harris Hawks Optimization algorithm employs an inventive coding mechanism to choose the optimal relay cluster head for data transmission. According to the results, the network throughput, HHOCFR is 8.76%, 11.73%, 8.64% higher than HHO-UCRA, IHHO-F, and EFCR. In addition, he energy consumption of HHOCFR is lower than HHO-UCRA, IHHO-F, and EFCR by 0.88%, 39.79%, 34.25%, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to solve the problem of hot spot caused by uneven energy consumption of nodes and reduce the network energy consumption, a novel Cluster Routing algorithm for ring based wireless sensor networks using Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and Lion Swarm Optimization (LSO) is proposed in this paper, which is called CRPL. In CRPL, the optimal cluster heads (CHs) of each ring are determined by using LSO whose fitness function considers not only energy, number of neighbor nodes, number of cluster heads but also distance. Moreover, PSO with a multi-objective fitness function considering distance, energy and cluster size is used to find the next hop relay node in the process of data transmission for each CH, so the optimal routing paths are obtained, which can alleviate the hot spot problem as well as decrease the energy consumption in the routing process. The simulation results show that, compared with the existing correlative cluster routing algorithms, CRPL has better effects in balancing the energy consumption and prolonging the lifespan of the network. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, a novel optimal relay angle-based clustering routing protocol called RACR is proposed to balance nodes' energy consumption and prolong the network lifespan of wireless sensor networks (WSNs). In RACR, each node considers the parameters residual energy, number of neighbors, and average distance with neighbors as a criteria to determine whether to become a cluster head (CH) which cooperates with its neighbors to form a cluster. Afterward, the optimal relay angle is calculated for each CH to find its best relay node according to a target function considering the least energy consumption, which is applied to reduce the search range for finding routing paths. Consequently, all the CHs can find their best next-hop nodes within the determined field according to their residual energy, distance to the next-hop CH, and loads. Iteratively, the CHs obtain their best routing paths to the BS in the end. Simulation results demonstrate its effectiveness of RACR in terms of energy consumption, standard deviation of residual energy, data communication delay, network throughput, and lifespan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A trust‐aware secure routing protocol (TSRP) for wireless sensor networks is proposed in this paper to defend against varieties of attacks. First, each node calculates the comprehensive trust values of its neighbors based on direct trust value, indirect trust value, volatilization factor, and residual energy to defend against black hole, selective forwarding, wormhole, hello flood, and sinkhole attacks. Second, any source node that needs to send data forwards a routing request packet to its neighbors in multi‐path mode, and this continues until the sink at the end is reached. Finally, the sink finds the optimal path based on the path's comprehensive trust values, transmission distance, and hop count by analyzing the received packets. Simulation results show that TSRP has lower network latency, smaller packet loss rate, and lower average network energy consumption than ad hoc on‐demand distance vector routing and trust based secure routing protocol. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]