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An encyclopedia entry for "antiepileptic drugs (AEDS)" is presented. It highlights the availability of treatment options for epilepsy after 1993 due to the emergence of new-generation AEDS for patients with seizures. Variations in the AED of choice are based on experience, personal preference, desire to avoid particular side effects, as well as cost convenience issues.

An encyclopedia entry for "sexuality" is presented. It examines the link between seizures and the incidence of sexual dysfunction. It cites several sexual disorders associated with seizures, including reduced arousal, erectile dysfunction, and anorgamia in men. The entry also discusses sexual auras associated with general sensations that may be pleasurable or unpleasurable without sexual content or with symptoms of sexual excitement.

An encyclopedia entry for "Rolandic epilepsy (Benign Childhood Epilepsy With Centro-Temporal Spikes)" is presented. It refers to the most frequent localization-related epilepsy syndrome in childhood. The syndrome is considered benign based on the prognosis in which the ultimate likelihood of remission before puberty is high. It is noted that the condition can occur in previously normal children without neurologic or intellectual deficit.

An encyclopedia entry for "antiepileptic drug (AED) levels" is presented. It cites several sources of AED levels, such as plasma, serum, blood levels, and saliva. It also mentions the potential use of therapeutic ranges, which are provided by the laboratory performing AED assays, as a guide in management, but treatment must be adapted to the needs of the patient.

An encyclopedia entry for "skin eruptions and toxic dermatoses" is presented. It refers to a common allergic reaction to drugs frequently associated with antiepileptic drugs. The antiepileptic drugs (AED) associated with Stevens-Johnson syndrome (SJS) include lamotrigine, topiramate, oxcarbazepine, and zonisamide. Such reaction is also considered the first sign of a more serious systemic hypersensitivity syndrome.

An encyclopedia entry for "single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)" is presented. It refers to a cerebral functional neuroimaging technique that utilizes a systematically injected or inhaled radio-labeled tracer to measure regional cerebral blood flow. The entry also compares SPECT to positron emission tomography (PET).

An encyclopedia entry for "situation-related seizures" is presented. It refers to seizures that are synonomous with provoked seizures and acute symptomatic seizures. It discusses three categories that have been most commonly found with respect to etiology, including febrile seizures and seizures the arise in association with medical conditions or systemic disorders.

An encyclopedia entry for "single seizure" is presented. It refers to the first or only seizure that occurs spontaneously without a clear cause. The importance of the concept lies in the notion that a single isolated seizure does not represent the diagnosis of epilepsy with its attendant medical and psychosocial consequences. It is recommended that antiepileptic drug (AED) therapy be considered after a single unprovoked seizure.

An encyclopedia entry for "sialidoses" is presented. It refers to a group of disorders of lysosomes due to alpha-N-acetyl neuraminidase abnormalities. Among its clinical features are a progressive myclonus epilepsy, bilateral cherry-red spots visible on fundoscopic examination, and enzymatic abnormalities in leukocytes. The entry also presents a description of two phenotypes of sialidoses.

An encyclopedia entry for "self-medication and alternative medicine" is presented. It explores modes of treatment for seizures including altering antiepileptic drugs (AED), usually dosage, or taking other treatments. It is noted that an estimated 40 percent of U.S. citizens use complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) for several conditions.

An encyclopedia entry for "seizures" is presented. It refers to an electrographic or behavioral change that results from a sudden excessive, hypersynchronous discharge of cerebral neurons. A seizure is considered a symptom and not a disease. The entry also explains the two major categories of seizures, which include localization-related and generalized seizures.

An encyclopedia entry for "scotosensitive seizures" is presented. It refers to clinical seizures that can be induced by sudden darkness or abolition of central vision or fixation-off. Such seizures are characterized by palpebral myoclonic jerks with absence seizures caused by suppression of central vision. It is noted that they can also be seen in patients with developmental abnormalities of the brain.

An encyclopedia entry for "scholastic activities" is presented. It describes the scholastic difficulties experienced by many school children with epilepsy. The reasons for difficulty include absenteeism due to seizures, adverse effects of medication, and problematic relationships with teachers and schoolmates. The entry also mentions other factors that may contribute to poor school performance, including over protective parental attitudes.

An encyclopedia entry for "schizencephaly" is presented. It refers to a full-thickness cleft in the cortex extending to the lateral ventricle and located near the sylvian fissure. A neuronal migrational disorder is represented by the cleft that affects the telencephalon. There has been an association between the malformation and the gene EMX2 in familial schizencephaly.

An encyclopedia entry for "scans of the brain (CT,MRI)" is presented. It offers information on computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which are used in neuroimaging of the nervous system in patients with seizures. The importance of neuroimaging with deterioration in a previously stable clinical condition is cited.

An encyclopedia entry for "ripples" is presented. It refers to high-frequency oscillations between 80 and 150 hertz using microelectrode recording. It is noted that such oscillations occur within brain areas where seizures arise. They are considered ripples in normal animal models within the hippocampus and enterorhinal cortex.

An encyclopedia entry for "retiagabine" is presented. It refers to a drug that was initially licensed in the U.S. for development in the late 1990s. It has shown effectiveness in adults with refractory partial-onset seizures. The entry also describes the mechanism of action of the drug, which involves altering potassium conductance regulating excitability in neuronal cells.

An encyclopedia entry for "antiepileptic drug mechanisms" is presented. It presents a background of the discovery of early antiepileptic drugs (AED), including bromide and phenobarbital. It is noted that the development of current AED is based on their ability to protect against seizures in animal models, which makes understanding of AED mechanisms incomplete.

An encyclopedia entry for "acquired epileptic aphasia (Landau-Kleffner Syndrome)" is presented. It refers to a rare syndrome of unknown etiology, which starts in early childhood that results in progressive deterioration of language function over several years. It is noted that the syndrome occurs with male predominance, with 70 percent occurring before age 6.

An encyclopedia entry for "anoxia/hypoxia" is presented. It enumerates a variety of neurologic disorders produced by a severe, diffuse anoxia in adults, including partial onset seizures, generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and myoclonic seizures. Electroencephalography (EEG) is cited as an important diagnostic and prognostic information in cases where coma is present.

An encyclopedia entry for "antiepileptogenesis" is presented. It refers to the search for therapies that offer prophylaxis against developing epilepsy before the cascade of seizure-related burdens is encountered. The multitude of injuries that create both neurologic and cognitive deficits associated with epilepsy is cited as a link between neuroprotection and antiepileptogenesis.

An encyclopedia entry for "Angelman syndrome" is presented. It refers to an epilepsy syndrome described by British pediatrician Harry Angelman in 1965. The genetic syndrome is inherited by approximately 1/15,000 children and the diagnosis is based upon history, clinical features and behavior. The entry also enumerates the distinctive characteristics of children with the syndrome, including happy appearance, smiling, and laughing.

An encyclopedia entry for "animal models of the epilepsies" is presented. It emphasizes the importance of experiments done on animal models as a source of important knowledge of the processes by which epilepsy is generated. It cites ethical and practical limits on the investigational study of epilepsy in human subjects as the reasons for the use of animal models in epilepsy research.

An encyclopedia entry for "arterial aneurysms" is presented. It discloses the occurrence of seizures in 10 to 25 percent of patients who have undergone surgical intervention for aneurysm repair. It cites the link between larger aneurysms and particular localizations and a higher incidence of seizure.

An encyclopedia entry for "aplastic anemia" is presented. It refers to a condition characterized by a severe, often irreversible dysfunction of the bone marrow stem cells. It is noted that aplastic anemia induced by drugs is often fatal when it occurs. The occurrence of aplastic anemia cannot be predicted by routine hematologic monitoring, which makes it dangerous.

An encyclopedia entry for "amygdalohippocampectomy" is presented. It refers to an effective treatment for patients with medically intractable mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. It is noted that targeted surgical resection to excise more limited tissue has been found to result in more favorable neuropsychological outcomes.

An encyclopedia entry for "ammonia" is presented. It refers to a compound generated by the metabolism of urea and amino acids which is associated with seizures in those with inborn metabolism disorders. Patients receiving valproate (VPA) have the possibility of suffering from hyperammonemia, which is more likely to occur when coadministered with an enzyme-inducing antiepileptic drugs (AED).

An encyclopedia entry for "sleep deprivation" is presented. It refers to an important seizure precipitant which appears to have its greatest impact in those with idiopathic generalized epilepsies. It was found that sleep deprivation increased cortical excitability in epilepsy and was syndrome dependent-most prominently for those with idiopathic generalized epilepsies.

An encyclopedia entry for "renal disease" is presented. It describes the association between renal disease and seizures as evidenced by the occurrence of seizures in approximately one third of patients with renal failure. It also examines the link between renal failure and acute uremia, as well as its risks for convulsions of 10 percent or less.

An encyclopedia entry for "shuddering attacks" is presented. It refers to nonepileptic spells that may be confused with epileptic seizures. The incidence of shuddering attacks is low, but there is lack of comprehensive research on the issue. The entry also describes the occurrence of shuddering attacks in infants precipitated by eating and head movement.

An encyclopedia entry for "Santavuori-Haltia disease" is presented. It refers to a disease in an early infantile form of neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses that is rarely seen outside Finland. The disease presents at one-and-a-half years of age and is characterized by myoclonus, ataxia, visual impairment with optic atrophy.

An encyclopedia entry for "Rufinamide (Banze®)" is presented. It refers to an antiepileptic drug approved for use in patients with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. The drug has been evaluated as adjunctive treatment for adults with refractory partial-onset seizures with responder rates of 39 percent. It will be available for use in 2009 for partial-onset seizures in adults and adolescents.

An encyclopedia entry for "Rett syndrome" is presented. It refers to a progressive encephalopathy of unknown etiology that occurs predominantly in young females. The syndrome evolves to arrest of development and progressive mental deterioration characterized by loss of hand use. It is associated with several conditions, such as gait apraxia, axial ataxia, and autism.

An encyclopedia entry for "apoptosis" is presented. It refers to the process that results in cell death, which may occur in undifferentiated cells early in life to facilitate the balance between cellular proliferation and degeneration. Neuropeptides, hormones, and suppressor genes contribute to the modulation of the balance between cellular proliferation and degeneration.

An encyclopedia entry for "apolipoprotein E" is presented. It explains the importance of apolipoprotein E in neurobiology, including the area of epilepsy by transporting lipids and maintaining synaptic and dendritic homeostasis. It also offers information on the principal source of apolipoprotein in the brain and its onset on earlier age.

An encyclopedia entry for "apnea" is presented. It refers to a condition that may be seen in complex partial seizures as a post-ictal phenomenon and less frequently as an ictal phenomenon. The entry also describes the association between apnea and other autonomic symptoms when it occurs. Apnea is cited as a constant feature of tonic-clonic seizures when muscles of respiration are ineffective.

An encyclopedia entry for "aphasic seizures" is presented. It refers to a condition which involves the impairment of language function due to an ictal discharge in the region of the dominant inferior posterior frontal lobe or the temporal region. A reliable indicator of nondominant hemispheric onset in patients with complex partial seizures is ictal speech. The reasons for the difficulty of accurately determining aphasia include its brevity and the ictal involvement of other cortical regions.

An encyclopedia entry for "anxiety" is presented. It is noted that mood disorders is a complicating factor in patients with epilepsy. Anxiety is considered a frequent comorbidity factor in patients with mood disorders both with and without epilepsy. It is estimated that one third of patients after epilepsy surgery do not change from preoperative anxiety or mood disorders.

An encyclopedia entry for "anesthesia" is presented. It offers guidelines on the administration of antiepilectic drugs (AED). It recommends that oral intake of AED be suspended during general anesthesia and safely resumed when the patient awakens and bowel motility is restored. The entry also mentions the availability of intravenous formulations for phenytoin, phenobarbital and valproate.

An encyclopedia entry for "amygdala" is presented. It refers to a large complex of gray matter nuclei located in the dorsal anterior-medial temporal lobe classified as part of the limbic system and the olfactory system. Seizures that originate from the amygdala are characterized by a sensation of rising epigastric discomfort, nausea, oral automatisms, chewing, fear, and panic.

An encyclopedia entry for "amnestic seizures" is presented. It refers to partial seizures that produce distortions of perception and memory and may induce an altered sense of time including déjà vu, déjà entendu, and déjà vecu. Some authors claim that such seizures are the consequences of the simultaneous ictal involvement of Ammon's horn and the external temporal cortex.

An encyclopedia entry for "ambulatory EEG" is presented. It refers to a means of recording of electroencephalography (EEG) patterns for prolonged periods during normal routines of daily living at home, work, or school. It is noted that ambulatory EEG is more productive when compared to routine EEG, particularly when seizure monitoring is needed.

An encyclopedia entry for "amnesia" is presented. It refers to a loss of memory due to organic processes that usually involve the temporal lobes. Its causes include intoxication, withdrawal from drugs or alcohol, dementias and brain trauma. Dissociative amnesia refers to a loss of memory from psychological causes.