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Ample evidence indicates that a person's human capital is important for success on the labor market in terms of both wages and employment prospects. However, unlike the efforts to identify the impact of school attainment on labor-market outcomes, the literature on returns to cognitive skills has not yet provided convincing evidence that the estimated returns can be causally interpreted. Using the PIAAC Survey of Adult Skills, this paper explores several approaches that aim to address potential threats to causal identification of returns to skills, in terms of both higher wages and better employment chances. We address measurement error by exploiting the fact that PIAAC measures skills in several domains. Furthermore, we estimate instrumental-variable models that use skill variation stemming from school attainment and parental education to circumvent reverse causation. Results show a strikingly similar pattern across the diverse set of countries in our sample. In fact, the instrumental-variable estimates are consistently larger than those found in standard least-squares estimations. The same is true in two "natural experiments," one of which exploits variation in skills from changes in compulsory-schooling laws across U.S. states. The other one identifies technologically induced variation in broadband Internet availability that gives rise to variation in ICT skills across German municipalities. Together, the results suggest that least-squares estimates may provide a lower bound of the true returns to skills in the labor market.

In this paper, the authors first discuss the Neumark and Troske piece, and then compare the U.S. context to that in Europe and Korea, as described by the Caspar, Hartwig, and Moench and the Cho and Shin contributions. Although they are in basic agreement with Neumark and Troske on the extent and depth of the current employment situation, they differ to some extent in terms of remedies. While Neumark and Troske argue that the stimulus packages had a very small impact on the economy, the authors feel that this may be too negative an assessment, especially given the larger global financial forces that seem to overwhelm domestic job creation efforts. The European and Korean papers contribute an important comparative perspective on the recession. As Cho and Shin argue, Korea fared very well due to rising demand for domestic consumption and a very small welfare state. However, Korean institutions are hard to convert or directly compare to those in the United States. It is hard to tell a "European story" because of the large difference in institutions and the differing impacts of the recession. Germany and Scandinavia have clearly done much better than Spain, Greece, or Ireland. Caspar, Hartwig, and Moench emphasize that if the gains are to be longer term, there needs to be "structural reform" of the labor market--to "strengthen labor market policies that reduce structural unemployment rates, increase labor market participation, strengthen the reallocation of labor toward a smart, sustainable, and inclusive economy, and promote social cohesion by targeting specific groups of workers." All of this sounds great, but how does the United States move toward these goals? It is harder than one might expect to extract some clear lessons about how deeper economic pain could have been avoided or how one might be able to make more significant or rapid progress in pulling the U.S. labor market out of its malaise. If anything, the authors find that, of the nations examined in this set of articles, each has a different story to tell about the great recession, and the reality is that in every case, the stories are not yet fully told. (Contains 1 table.)

In recent times, many key host nations have made it easier for foreign graduates to migrate after graduation. These students are often considered ideal migrants, possessing local qualifications along with a degree of acculturation, language skills and, in many cases, relevant local work experience. For the student, the opportunity to obtain international work experience adds to the appeal of the overseas study experience and enhances the graduate skills necessary to compete in the global labour market. This paper examines recent changes to migration policy in Australia affecting the post-study work entitlements of international students studying at Australian universities and explores the underlying rationale and consequences of the recent changes in policy direction. An examination of migration policies in the United States, United Kingdom, New Zealand and Canada indicates that recent changes to skilled migration policy in Australia, along with bleak economic conditions in a number of key host countries, has opened up opportunities for Australia to re-position itself favourably.

The article comments on studies by Robert E. Hall and Charles C. Holt that examined the effectiveness of manpower policies in improving the inflation-unemployment tradeoff in the economy in the U.S. My own position lies between these two extremes. I think that Holt and his colleagues are too optimistic, both in their assessment of the magnitude of the effect of their program in reducing unemployment and in their implication that a program of the size and kind they envision is politically feasible. I find completely unacceptable Hall's argument that, if a public employment service could succeed in doing a significantly better job than it is now doing, private placement services would have been more active since the gains accrue to the workers or the employers and therefore could be paid for. In a footnote. Hall admits that there may be some externalities involved in a public employment service. But so far as I can see, he ignores barriers to an effectively functioning labor market that a large and efficient Employment Service could hope to overcome, such as the lack of information among the unemployed and their inability or unwillingness to pay for the services of private agencies. I agree with Hall that there is little chance of eliminating the dispersion of unemployment rates among the various sectors of the national labor market. However, I think he pays too much attention to the occupational dimension, as do Holt and his colleagues. I believe other dimensions of the labor force, particularly age and sex, are more significant in this connection.

This paper investigates whether different labour market characteristics amplify or dampen the local labour market impacts from Chinese import competition exposure. I exploit state‐level variation in initial, pre‐shock labour market characteristics and regional variation across local labour markets in exposure to Chinese imports for identification. I find that local labour markets in states with higher union density experience more severe adverse consequences as a result of increased import exposure. Conversely, higher initial minimum wages help mute the negative impacts of the China shock. I also provide some evidence that exceptions to employment‐at‐will legislation can affect employment responses to increased Chinese imports. Finally, examining all policies together in an index, I show that higher levels of policies intended to benefit and protect workers can actually magnify the extent of the damage inflicted by import competition. My results suggest that initial labour market characteristics and policies can play an important role in understanding why local labour markets react differently to trade shocks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper identifies the effect of the Affordable Care Act's dependent coverage mandate on health insurance coverage and labor market outcomes among young adults by exploiting the discrete change in health insurance coverage at age 26. Using a regression discontinuity design, we find that aging out from the ACA's dependent coverage mandate is associated with up to a 4.2-percentage-point decrease in private insurance coverage at age 26. We also find that aging out from the mandate is significantly associated with an increase in the probability of being employed. However, we do not find any significant changes in hourly wage, weekly working hours or job mobility at age 26. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This section critiques a paper by Kim B. Clark and Lawrence H. Summers published in this same issue of Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, which argues that most unemployment, even in tight labor markets, is characterized by relatively few persons who are out of work a large part of the time. The first commenter commends Clark and Summers for putting the labor market in a comprehensive empirical perspective. According to him, the paper is strong in emphasizing the size and significance of large flows into and out of the labor force. One of the authors' main themes is that the dynamic analysis of the labor market has overemphasized turnover and slighted long duration of unemployment. But in the commenter's view, the authors somewhat overstate their conclusions. Meanwhile, the second commenter notes that the paper is challenging, full of new information and insights. In his view, the paper has a number of messages: it presents a wide variety of new facts and ways of looking at unemployment as a probability process; it rejects temporary layoffs as an important explanation of the overall level of unemployment; it minimizes the importance of search theory and the general idea that unemployment is a privately or socially productive use of time; and it disposes of some kind of widely accepted new view of unemployment that rests on the idea of high turnover.

Service offshoring raises the fear of job loss for high‐skilled workers, unlike goods offshoring, because workers at home compete with highly educated workers in low‐income countries. This paper examines whether the increase in the United States's service offshoring to India has reduced the domestic employment of the occupations with greater exposure to Indian service imports. To account for endogeneity, I instrument for the growth of the United States's service imports from India by exploiting the change in Indian exports to European countries. Service offshoring reduces total employment from 2000 to 2006; however, this effect disappears overall and becomes positive for college‐educated workers in the later period from 2006 to 2016. Unlike goods offshoring, the employment effect is largely driven by college‐educated workers, and the employment growth in the later period is larger. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on efforts of the U.S. Department of Labor to analyze labor market and labor policymaking. It mentions efforts to reduce the unemployment rate; and statistics related to the changes in total private employment provided by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics; and an increase in long-term unemployed and prolonged durations in unemployment. It also reflects on unemployment during the Great Recession of 2008 and the recovery to be explained by changes in gross domestic product (GDP).

The article discusses role of the U.S. Department of Labor (DOL) to meet job challenges faced by workers in the U.S. It mentions first jobs challenge for stronger macroeconomic performance with more rapid economic growth and employment expansion to alleviate the high cyclical unemployment; and efforts to address longer term secular trends of rising labor market inequality, growing educational wage gaps and labor market polarization. It also mentions challenges regarding training and employment programs.

In this issue of the ILRReview, the first five articles provide important new evidence on gender and employment. The papers were all independently submitted and were refereed through the usual editorial process. Because the papers' unifying theme is gender and labor market outcomes, the Editors felt that creating a symposium out of this new body of work would serve the research community studying gender, as well as the policymakers concerned with gender and labor market outcomes. All of the articles use new data sources or advanced statistical techniques to greatly enhance our understanding of gender and employment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper, written by the members of the American Economic Association (AEA) Ad Hoc Committee on the Job Market, provides an overview of the market for new Ph.D. economists. It describes the role of the AEA in the market and focuses in particular on two mechanisms adopted in recent years at the suggestion of our Committee. First, job market applicants now have a signaling service to send an expression of special interest to up to two employers prior to interviews at the January Allied Social Science Associations (ASSA) meetings. Second, the AEA now invites candidates who are still on the market, and employers whose positions are still vacant, to participate in a web-based 'scramble' to reduce search costs and thicken the late part of the job market. We present statistics on the activity in these market mechanisms and present survey evidence that both mechanisms have facilitated matches. The paper concludes by discussing the emergence of platforms for transmitting job market information and other design issues that may arise in the market for new economists. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT: This paper will set up a general equilibrium model with a distorted labour market to explore the effects of an environmental tax and union bargaining power on formal employment and the informal competitive wage. We find that when the government raises the environmental tax, both formal employment and informal competitive wage would fall. In addition, we confirm that a policy of labour market reform would increase both formal employment and the informal competitive wage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Expanding employment opportunities for citizens has become an increasingly central goal of public policy in the United States. Prior work has considered that the inability of households to spatially access jobs may be a driver of unemployment. The provision of public transportation provides a viable policy lever to increase the number of job opportunities available to households. Previous research has yielded mixed results regarding whether household location is an important factor in determining employment status. Several papers have identified mobility as a limiting factor for obtaining a job, particularly in regards to private vehicle ownership. The location of economically developed neighbourhoods and the citing of public transportation are conceivably codetermined, presenting an endogenous relationship. It is therefore unclear if public transportation access is actually contributing to neighbourhood job market outcomes. This paper will use the incidence of Hurricane Sandy striking New York City on 29 October 2012 and the resulting exogenous reduction in public transit access to particular neighbourhoods as a natural experiment to test for the effect of public transportation on employment outcomes. This study identifies a significant causal effect linking public transportation access to neighbourhood unemployment rates, particularly amongst subgroups dependent on public transit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents comments to the paper by Hank Farber entitled "The Changing Face of Job Loss in the United States, 1981-1995." According to John Haltiwanger, the paper presents an excellent analysis to the continuing job loss in the U.S. He says although the job-loss terminology used by Farber and job destruction sound similar, they are distinct concepts. According to Katherine G. Abraham, the paper offers a comprehensive analysis of data from the first seven Displaced Worker supplements to the Current Population Survey. The paper is also careful in its treatment of the displaced worker data.

Recent studies have found evidence of a local employment multiplier's effect. For the most part, these studies provide an average estimate for all labor markets. In this paper, we examine how the average local employment multiplier, the effect of an exogenous increase in employment in the tradable sector on total employment, depends on the characteristics of the local labor market. Specifically, we estimate the average multipliers for coastal, noncoastal, large, and small metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs) across different time periods using the data of 333 US MSAs. Overall, we find a reduced form of local employment multiplier ranging from 1.38 to 2.24, which is within the range of typically estimated local employment multipliers. In addition, the characteristics of the local labor market matter. The local multipliers appear larger in noncoastal and large MSAs. For small and coastal metros, the multiplier is closer to 1.5 than to 2.0 while in the case of large and noncoastal metros, it is closer to 2.0 than to 1.5. The local multipliers are also sensitive to the time period considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper examines two labour market outcomes experienced by users of federally-funded transportation services for low-wage workers in the United States, using primary data from 23 locations. The propensity of users to be unemployed prior to using the service is found to be related to the type of service (fixed-route/demand-response) and location type (urban/rural) but not to aggregate local unemployment, variability in local unemployment rates or local welfare policies. The propensity to earn higher wages is related to the type of employment transportation service and location, and local unemployment levels. Results imply a need for locally-derived, coordinated employment transportation plans. Resumen Este artículo examina dos consecuencias del mercado laboral sufridas por los usuarios de servicios de transporte subvencionados por el gobierno federal para trabajadores de bajos ingresos en los Estados Unidos, haciendo uso de datos primarios de 23 localizaciones. Se ha encontrado que la propensión de los usuarios a estar desempleados antes de utilizar el servicio está relacionada con el tipo de servicio (ruta fija/demanda-respuesta) y el tipo de localización (urbana/rural), pero no con el desempleo local agregado, la variabilidad de las tasas de desempleo local o las políticas locales de asistencia social. La propensión a ganar salarios más altos está relacionada con el tipo de servicio de transporte del empleo y la localización, y las tasas de desempleo locales. Los resultados implican la necesidad de planes coordinados de transporte del empleo basados en las condiciones locales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose -- The purpose of this paper is to assess the evolution of labour-market performance in the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) over the last decade, considering the robustness of the claims made in an important OECD follow-up study. Design/methodology/approach -- The paper sets up an empirical framework calibrated on an important OECD follow-up study, and suggests some ways in which the impact of unobserved heterogeneity and outliers on policy estimates can be treated in a cross-section framework. The framework applies to the data for 30 OECD countries. Findings -- The paper finds that changes in labour-market performance are inversely linked to lagged unemployment. Changes in the share of construction workers are also significant even in the presence of various kinds of policy change indicators. As far as the latter are concerned, the results highlight the role of unemployment benefits and, especially, active labour-market policies. Research limitations/implications -- The kind of policy change indicators used do not allow the adoption of panel data techniques. Practical implications -- An important policy role seems to emerge for unemployment benefit reforms and, even more so, active labour-market policies. The evidence also supports the contention that the construction sector is important for labour-market performance. Originality/value -- The paper brings to the fore novel evidence about cross-country labour-market performance at a time when this issue is of high interest for citizens and policy-makers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Immigration policy is one of the most hotly contested political issues in the United States. In this paper, we evaluate the role of immigration in the U.S. economy. We pose the counterfactual question, “what would happen if net migration to the U.S. were to cease?” Using the REMI PI+ macroeconomic policy analysis model, we set to zero international immigration from 2018 to 2060, and estimate the national- and state-level economic and demographic implications of this change. Our estimates show that, in the absence of immigration, total U.S. employment would peak in 2019, and the U.S. GDP and labor force would decline by 20% through 2060. Per capita income and GDP effects, however, are relatively minor and sensitive to assumptions in labor and capital markets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using laboratory experiments within a New Keynesian framework, we explore the interaction between the formation of inflation expectations and monetary policy design. The central question in this paper is how to design monetary policy when expectations formation is not perfectly rational. Instrumental rules that use actual rather than forecasted inflation produce lower inflation variability and reduce expectational cycles. A forward-looking Taylor rule where a reaction coefficient equals 4 produces lower inflation variability than rules with reaction coefficients of 1.5 and 1.35. Inflation variability produced with the latter two rules is not significantly different. Moreover, the forecasting rules chosen by subjects appear to vary systematically with the policy regime, with destabilizing mechanisms chosen more often when inflation control is weaker. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The U.S. labor market contracted sharply during the Great Recession. The ensuing recovery has been sluggish and by some measures still incomplete. In this paper, we break down aggregate employment during the Recession and the recovery into changes across industries and occupations. There is a clear asymmetric pattern: The contraction is driven by sectors and the recovery by occupations. In particular, the contraction between 2008 and 2010 primarily reflects a steep decline in construction employment, partially mitigated by expansions in the food services, education, and health industries. The recovery first came from a gradual increase in low-skill occupation employment across all sectors but after 2012 from a pronounced increase in high-skill occupation employment across all sectors. This pattern of recovery is a continuation of the underlying trend of polarization across occupations, which commenced in the 1980s. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper argues that most unemployment, even in tight labor markets, is characterized by relatively few persons who are out of work a large part of the time. The authors find that normal turnover, broadly defined, can account for only a small part of measured unemployment in the U.S. The first part of the paper examines the distribution of completed spells of unemployment. The apparent brevity of spells has played a key role in supporting the dynamic view of unemployment. The authors challenge this view by demonstrating that only a small part of all unemployment is experienced by persons who find a job after a brief spell. Almost half of all unemployment spells end by persons leaving the labor force. In the official statistics, movements between unemployment and employment are dwarfed by transitions into and out of the labor force. The second part of the paper examines these transitions in the labor force. The interpretation of the frequency of unemployment spells depends on whether they are widely dispersed among the population. This issue is examined in the third part of the paper, which presents evidence on the concentration of unemployment over one- and four-year horizons. The paper concludes by advancing some suggestions on sources of extensive unemployment.

This article focuses on employment of demographic groups in the U.S. Recent increase in the national unemployment rate and forecasts of higher rates throughout 1975 have brought unemployment back into competition with inflation as the major economic problem. Since the three-and-one-half-year low set in October 1973, aggregate unemployment has increased by almost 1.9 million people, raising the overall unemployment rate to 6.5 percent in November 1974. The reported rate among teenagers has risen from the October 1973 low of 14 percent to more than 17 percent; the rate among blacks is almost 12 percent; and the rate for black teenagers is over 37 percent. Further increases in unemployment over the next year are widely forecast and there is a natural concern that the already depressed groups will be hit the hardest. In the policy debates over the appropriate fiscal and monetary restraint and on programs to assist the casualties of recession, it is important to identify the people who will be most harmed. Programs to ameliorate or offset the impacts of recession are often targeted at particular groups in the labor market. In this paper we use a job search-turnover model of the labor market to estimate the impact of a recession in 1975 on sixteen demographic groups, delineated by age, race, and sex. Through simulation, the model provides conditional forecasts of the incidence of employment losses by demographic groups. Since numbers of the groups with the highest unemployment rates -- youth, blacks, and women -- often react to a loss of job opportunities by withdrawing from the labor market, it is essential to estimate the reduced labor force participation of each group, as well as its increase in unemployment.

This article analyzes the nature of unemployment that remains when labor markets are tight and the economy seems to be at full employment in the U.S. as of 1970. The body of the paper begins with a discussion of the problem of defining and measuring unemployment. Definition derives from theory. In this case the theory underlying most macroeconomic thinking about unemployment is that of Keynes. Keynes believed that a certain level of frictional unemployment was characteristic of all labor markets, but that, in addition, involuntary unemployment could arise when a condition of disequilibrium existed in labor markets, with supply exceeding demand. For the purposes of the paper, his definition can be put in the following simple way: A person is unemployed if he offers his labor at its market price but is unable to find a buyer. A conventional view among economists about the persistence of unemployment when the economy is at full employment can be put in the following way: There are many different labor markets, distinguished by geographical location and the skills and other characteristics of the participants. Workers cannot move easily from one market to another since it is expensive to move their households or to acquire a new set of skills. At any point in time, some of the markets will be in equilibrium, some will have shortages of workers and some will have excess workers and hence unemployment.

Using a nationally representative dataset, this paper examines the nonprofit/for-profit difference in the gender pay gap specifically within the human services field. This industry-specific analysis is necessary because nonprofit organizations are concentrated in these fields. Unlike the conventional finding (based on economy-wide analyses) that the gender pay gap is smaller in nonprofits, this study does not find a significant nonprofit/for-profit difference in the gender pay gap within the human services. In addition, it examines the nonprofit pay differential for both female and male human services workers relative to their for-profit counterparts and finds an overall wage premium for nonprofit men. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The literature on spatial mismatch often focuses on a mismatch within cities or local labour markets. This paper looks at the spatial mismatch between local labour markets. Using US data, we study the evolution of inter-regional mismatch between 1980 and 2010 and how this evolution varies across skill levels. Since we expect the spatial structure of supply and demand in the labour market to play a central role at this geographical level, we develop an extension of the spatial mismatch index, as the standard version does not take this spatial structure into account. Our results indicate that spatial mismatch has been increasing over the past decades, an increase that is largely attributable to spatial structure effects. The inter-regional spatial mismatch mainly affects low-skilled jobs and workers: our findings suggest that the degree of the spatial mismatch for low-skilled, relative to high-skilled workers, increased from a ratio of two in 1980 to almost four in 2010. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes the changes in the employment choices of prime working-age women from 1967 to 2003. A neoclassical labor market participation model is presented and applied to data from the March Current Population Surveys (CPS). The paper provides a new insight: It highlights the different patterns of labor force participation by family-status categories. Also, the paper introduces the average annual unemployment rate at the state level as an explanatory variable to capture the demand-side constraint of the labor market. The results of the paper support the finding that since 1990, the increase in the participation of women in the labor force has slowed from previous decades. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The skills mismatch and spatial mismatch perspectives are often presented as competing explanations of the spatial distribution of unemployment within metropolitan areas. This paper argues that the spatial mismatch hypothesis addresses some of the shortcomings of the skills mismatch perspective, while not denying the importance of skills mismatch. The development of the spatial mismatch hypothesis in the US is traced, before considering its relevance in the British context. A framework in which to conceptualise and reconcile skills mismatch and spatial mismatch within metropolitan areas is developed, incorporating the operation of local housing and labour markets as well as the role of commuting. The paper concludes by arguing that skills and spatial mismatches reinforce each other and that the concept of employability offers some potential to help understand how job searchers and employers make decisions in situations of skills and/or spatial mismatch. The implications for future research are highlighted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper uses CPS data to examine changes in single women's labor supply elasticities in recent decades. Specifically, the authors investigate trends in how single women's hours of work and labor force participation rates responded to both wages and income over the years 1979--2003. Results from the base specification suggest that over the observation period, hours wage elasticities decreased by 82%, participation wage elasticities by 36%, and participation income elasticities by 57%. These results imply that changes in tax policy had a much larger effect on the labor supply and labor force participation behavior of women in this subpopulation in the early 1980s than in recent years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores the employment instability and unemployment rates in the U.S. In this article, the author systematically evaluates flows between all possible labor-market states and concludes that employment outflows are the main cause of high unemployment rates among nonwhites, women and teenagers. The author then seeks to determine the cause of the instability--in particular, the degree to which it can be associated with the characteristics of people and with the characteristics of their jobs. This paper makes an effort to sort out the causes of unemployment within the context of a dynamic labor market, examining labor flows that are overlooked in the narrow context of a two-state labor market. The further decomposition of unemployment flows in this paper allows a closer view of the behavioral relations that initiate unemployment spells and prevent reemployment. The model provides a framework in which to discuss unemployment in concrete terms such as quits, layoffs, and job accessions, terms that relate directly to the decisions of firms and workers. The excess of unemployment reported for nonwhites, women, and teenagers is found to result mostly from excessive job losses and quits, rather than from any special difficulty in finding jobs. Employed women are found to have a high propensity to leave the labor force, apparently for noneconomic reasons. A great many teenagers separate from their jobs, some leaving the labor force and others becoming unemployed. In contrast to the unemployment of special population groups, cyclical unemployment occurs because firms close the hiring window. Cyclical changes in unemployment aside, the analysis reveals a striking dominance of personal characteristics in explaining high job turnover.

This paper analyzes the impact of business cycle fluctuations on a labor market segmented into a unionized primary sector and a "competitive" secondary sector. Either permanent or temporary changes in real aggregate demand are shown to widen the intersectoral wage differential in recession and, under reasonable specifications of key parameters, to cause greater fluctuations of primary-sector employment than secondary-sector employment. This pattern agrees with the stylized facts of the U. S. economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper tests the effects of children and childcare on women's employment and entrepreneurial outcomes at the county level for the United States. Given that policies and economic development strategies are often implemented across local and regional jurisdictions, this regional study contributes to the literature by considering access to childcare in relation to locally aggregated female labour market outcomes by sector. The results, which address potential endogeneity, indicate that young children and childcare affect female employment differently depending on the sector. The results are consistent with women choosing the public sector and self-employment over the private sector to accommodate the demands of childrearing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]