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Mandatory calorie labelling on restaurant menus has been implemented in several Western countries. The purpose of the present study was to examine direct and indirect effects of the exposure to calorie information on menus on body-related shame, guilt, and hubristic pride. Self-compassion was examined as a moderator, and self-objectification was examined as a mediator. Men and women (N = 359, mean age = 42 years) were recruited on Prolific for a study examining "self-perceptions and menu choices". Participants were randomly assigned to view a menu with or without calorie information and select a hypothetical meal. Exposure to calories on menus statistically significantly predicted higher body-related shame, but not body-related guilt or body-related hubristic pride. Self-objectification did not mediate the relationship between exposure to calories on menus and body-related shame, guilt, or hubristic pride. Self-compassion moderated the relationship between exposure to calories on menus and body-related shame. Overall, individuals who scored low on self-compassion experienced higher body-related shame after exposure to a restaurant menu with calories. These findings outline potential harmful effects of mandatory calorie labelling that should be taken into account in the mandating and evaluation of such policies., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests: During the conduct of this research, Sarah Galway was supported by a SSHRC Canadian Graduate Scholarship - Doctoral Fellowship. Dr. Kimberley Gammage reports financial support was provided by a Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) Insight Grant. If there are other authors, they declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.) more...

Emotional arousal is caused by the activity of two parallel ascending systems targeting mostly the subcortical limbic regions and the prefrontal cortex. The aversive, negative arousal system is initiated by the activity of the mesolimbic cholinergic system and the hedonic, appetitive, arousal is initiated by the activity of the mesolimbic dopaminergic system. Both ascending projections have a diffused nature and arise from the rostral, tegmental part of the brain reticular activating system. The mesolimbic cholinergic system originates in the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus and the mesolimbic dopaminergic system in the ventral tegmental area. Cholinergic and dopaminergic arousal systems have converging input to the medial prefrontal cortex. The arousal system can modulate cortical EEG with alpha rhythms, which enhance synaptic strength as shown by an increase in long-term potentiation (LTP), whereas delta frequencies are associated with decreased arousal and a decrease in synaptic strength as shown by an increase in long-term depotentiation (LTD). It is postulated that the medial prefrontal cortex is an adaptable node with decision making capability and may control the switch between positive and negative affect and is responsible for modifying or changing emotional state and its expression., Competing Interests: Declarations. Conflict of interest: The authors declare no competing interests. , (© 2024. The Author(s).) more...

Introduction: The broaden and build theory of positive emotions maintains that positive emotions serve to broaden individuals' thoughts and behaviours, resulting in the accrual of resources (e.g. resilience) that catalyze upward spirals of well-being. However, there is a relative dearth of research examining the upward spiral hypothesis in the context of adolescence., Methods: Adolescents (n = 4064) in participating Canadian high schools were surveyed annually for three years as part of the COMPASS study. Reciprocal associations between positive emotions and resilience were examined as predictors of flourishing., Results: Adolescents who experienced positive emotions more frequently than usual reported higher levels of resilience one year later. Similarly, adolescents who had higher levels of resilience than usual reported more positive emotions the following year. Higher than usual levels of resilience and positive emotions positively predicted flourishing., Conclusion: Positive emotions result in a cascade of beneficial outcomes including increased resilience and enhanced well-being, catalyzing an upward spiral towards flourishing. Opportunities to enhance positive emotions early on in adolescence may help build resources that can set students on the path towards increased well-being., Competing Interests: The authors have no financial relationships relevant to this article and no conflicts of interest to disclose. more...

Politics and its controversies have permeated everyday life, but the daily impact of politics on the general public is largely unknown. Here, we apply an affective science framework to understand how the public experiences daily politics in a two-part examination. We first used longitudinal, daily diary methods to track two samples of U.S. participants as they experienced daily political events across 2 weeks (Study 1: N = 198, observations = 2,167) and 3 weeks (Study 2: N = 811, observations = 12,790) to explore how these events permeated people's lives and how people coped with that influence. In both diary studies, daily political events consistently not only evoked negative emotions, which corresponded to worse psychological and physical well-being, but also greater motivation to take political action (e.g., volunteer, protest) aimed at changing the political system that evoked these emotions in the first place. Understandably, people frequently tried to regulate their politics-induced emotions, and regulating these emotions using effective cognitive strategies (reappraisal and distraction) predicted greater well-being, but also weaker motivation to take action. Although people protected themselves from the emotional impact of politics, frequently used regulation strategies came with a trade-off between well-being and action. Second, we conducted experimental studies where we manipulated exposure to day-to-day politics (Study 3, N = 922), and the use of various emotion regulation strategies in response (Study 4, N = 1,277), and found causal support for the central findings of Studies 1-2. Overall, this research highlights how politics can be a chronic stressor in people's daily lives, underscoring the far-reaching influence politicians have beyond the formal powers endowed unto them. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved). more...

Adults' perceptions of children's disclosures have important implications for the response to that disclosure. Children who experience adult transgressions, such as maltreatment, often choose to disclose this experience to a peer. Thus, peer disclosure recipients may transmit this disclosure to an adult or provide support for the child's own disclosure. Despite this, the influence of peer disclosure on a child witness's credibility, as well as on the perceptions of peer disclosure recipients, is unknown. The present study examined how child witnesses' and peer disclosure recipients' credibility is impacted when the peer either confirms or contradicts the witness's disclosure (or concealment) of an adult transgression. Participants listened to a child witness and peer being interviewed by an adult in one of four disclosure patterns (consistent disclose, consistent conceal, witness disclose/peer conceal, or witness conceal/peer disclose). Participants rated both the witness and the peer on dimensions of credibility (honesty and cognitive competence). Results revealed that both the witness and peer were more credible when their reports were consistent with one another. When inconsistent, the witness/peer who disclosed was considered more credible than the one who concealed. The findings indicate the potential importance of peers in the disclosure process as they may support the witness's report and even be a credible discloser when the witness is reluctant to disclose. more...

Recognizing emotional expressions across different people and discriminating between them are important social skills. We examined their development using a novel free-sorting task in which children (aged 5 to 10) and adults sorted 20 faces (posing sadness, anger, fear, and disgust) into piles such that all faces in each pile were feeling the same. Participants could make as many or few piles (emotion categories) as they liked and then labeled each pile. There were no age-related changes in the number of piles made. Children made more confusion errors (two emotions in the same pile) than adults, a pattern that decreased with age. Errors were not random, but disproportionately involved placing fearful faces into piles labeled sad and disgusted faces into piles labeled angry-especially among children who did not produce fear and disgust labels, respectively. Our findings are consistent with differentiation and constructivist models of the development of emotion perception. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved). more...

Purpose: Different athletes may experience different emotions, based on one's appraisal of the situation or environment. To date, this line of research has received limited research attention in sport dyads. The purpose of this study was to understand the role of a partner's play on the different types of emotion of athletes, as well as perceived impact on overall emotions, performance, and motivation in doubles racquet sports (i.e., tennis, badminton, and squash). Method: Using a post-test only, randomized experimental design, participants read one of three possible written vignettes that depicted different scenarios of their partner's play (i.e., poor, good, or usual performance). Participants ( N = 103) were then asked to fill out a questionnaire packet based on the scenario read. Results: A Multivariate Analysis of Variance, as well as follow-up Analyses of Variance revealed significant differences between groups in subjective emotions based on whether their partner was playing poorly, their partner having a good performance or whether their partner was perceived as playing their usual game (control group).  The results showed that athletes scored higher in anger and anxiety when their partner is playing poorly, and when their partner is having a good performance, athletes had higher scores in happiness and excitement. Conclusion: Overall, these findings imply that athletes' emotions may change based on how their partner is playing and provide a foundation to look at emotional reactions (action tendencies) and coping in sport teams. more...

Some studies have shown that induced positive and negative affective states have differential effects on verbal and spatial working memory (WM) performance, such that positive affect improves verbal WM and impairs spatial WM, while negative affect improves spatial WM and impairs verbal WM. However, other evidence based on mood induction procedures or clinical levels of negative affect has supported a nonspecific influence of affect on WM performance where negative affect impairs, and positive affect improves, both verbal and spatial WM. The present study employed a latent variable approach to investigate whether differences in naturally occurring affect between individuals are related to verbal and spatial WM performance across six WM tasks in an unselected sample of undergraduate students (N = 112, M age = 20; 84% female). Results were consistent with previous evidence demonstrating a hierarchical model of WM. Naturally occurring positive and negative affect were not significantly related to WM performance on each task, and this lack of significant association held for the overall WM latent variable, verbal and spatial WM latent variables, as well as complex span and 2-back latent variables. In contrast to research demonstrating a relationship between induced affect or clinical levels of negative affect and WM, the non-significant relationship between naturally occurring affect and WM performance in the current nonclinical unselected sample suggests that typical levels of affect are not related to WM differences across individuals., (© 2021. Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.) more...

Objectives: Adolescence often is characterized by the onset of social anxiety and risk taking; yet, not all youth are anxious and/or risk takers. There are several factors that may help differentiate youth with anxiety (e.g., threat sensitivity and emotion dysregulation) and youth who take risks (e.g., impulsivity and emotion dysregulation). We conducted a latent class analysis to identify groups of youth who differ in these processes, and then investigated group differences on the error-related negativity, an ERP that has been differentially associated with threat sensitivity and impulsivity., Method: Youth (N = 1313, M age = 11, range = 8-15 years) completed a survey assessing their emotion dysregulation, sensitivity to threat, and impulsivity. A subsample (N = 424) also completed a go/no-go task while EEG was recorded., Results and Conclusions: Four groups were identified with differential levels of emotion dysregulation, sensitivity to threat, and impulsivity. Adolescents had greater odds than children of being in the High_Dysregulation/ThreatSensitivity or ModerateDysregulation/HighImpulsivity Groups in comparison to two other groups with lower scores. The High_Dysregulation/ThreatSensitivity Group had the largest ERN, while the ModerateDysregulation/HighImpulsivity Group had the smallest ERN. The ERN may be a potential biomarker to help distinguish between different profiles of adolescents who may be at risk for either anxiety or risk taking., (Copyright © 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.) more...

Research examining children's emotion judgments has generally used nonsocial tasks that do not resemble children's daily experiences in judging others' emotions. Here, younger children (4- to 6-year-olds) and older children (7- to 9-year-olds) participated in a socially interactive task where an experimenter opened boxes and made an expression (happy, sad, scared, or disgust) based on the object inside. Children guessed which of four objects (a sticker, a broken toy car, a spider, or toy poop) was in the box. Subsequently, children opened a set of boxes and generated facial expressions for the experimenter. Children also labeled the emotion elicited by the objects and static facial expressions. Children's ability to guess which object caused the experimenter's expression increased with age but did not predict their ability to generate a recognizable expression. Children's demonstration of emotion knowledge also varied across tasks, suggesting that when emotion judgment tasks more closely mimic their daily experiences, children demonstrate broader emotion knowledge., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.) more...

Theory of mind (ToM) consists of cognitive and affective components; however, few studies have evaluated the coherence of affective ToM measures and their associations with empathy. This research examined the relations among affective ToM tasks and assessments of empathy, measured directly and via parent reports in 4- to 6-year-olds. Children (N = 117) completed: an Appearance-Reality Emotion Task, an adapted Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test, an Affective Stories Task, and an empathy task. Parents reported on children's ToM and empathy, and language was assessed using a Picture Vocabulary Test. Controlling for language, no relationships were found among affective ToM measures and children's age was only related to the Affective Stories Task. Further, controlling for age, only parent-reported empathy was associated with the Appearance-Reality Emotion Task. Once vocabulary and age were controlled, measures of affective ToM are unrelated and different developmental patterns emerged across measures. Statement of contribution What is already known on this subject Affective theory of mind is a distinct subcomponent of theory of mind that corresponds to an independent developmental mechanism. However, little research has been conducted on affective ToM, its developmental trajectory during the preschool years, its assessment, and its relationship with related constructs, such as empathy. What the present study adds Children's performance on affective ToM tasks was unrelated once age and language abilities were accounted for. Thus, there is a need to examine affective ToM and its measurement more extensively to ensure we are effectively capturing this construct. This study was the first to establish a Preschool Reading the Mind in the Eyes Task that uses images of children and pictorial response options and an Affective Stories Task that captures age-related changes in affective ToM beyond language skills., (© 2020 The British Psychological Society.) more...

The current study explored change in body-related self-conscious emotions (e.g., shame, guilt, authentic pride, hubristic pride) over three years, and tested body surveillance, age, weight status, years in sport, and competitive status as baseline predictors of change. Adolescent females engaged in organized sport (N = 518 at baseline, M age  = 14.02, SD = 1.38 years) completed a self-report survey once a year for three years (n = 293 and n = 215 in Years 2 and 3, respectively). Based on the unconditional latent growth model, body-related shame and guilt increased over time, and authentic and hubristic pride decreased over time. There was substantial between-person variability in the intercepts for all emotions and slopes for shame, guilt, and hubristic pride. In the conditional parallel process latent growth model, body surveillance predicted shallower change in shame and guilt over time. Female athletes high in body surveillance also reported higher body-related shame and guilt and lower authentic and hubristic pride at baseline. These findings highlight the importance of studying changes in self-conscious emotions over time in sport, and demonstrate that body surveillance may be an important factor to explore in interventions early in development., (Copyright © 2019. Published by Elsevier Ltd.) more...

Attentional bias to threat has been implicated in both internalizing and externalizing disorders. This study utilizes event-related potentials to examine early stages of perceptual attention to threatening (angry or fearful) versus neutral faces among a sample of 200 children ages 6-8 years from a low-income, urban community. Although both internalizing and externalizing symptoms were associated with processing biases, the nature of the bias differed between these two symptom domains. Internalizing symptoms were associated with heightened early attentional selection (P1) and later perceptual processing (P2) of fearful faces. In contrast, externalizing symptoms were associated with reduced early attentional selection (P1) of fearful faces and enhanced perceptual processing (P2) of neutral faces, possibly indicative of a hostile interpretation bias for ambiguous social cues. These results provide insight into the distinct cognitive-affective processes that may contribute to the etiology and maintenance of internalizing and externalizing psychopathology., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest None., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.) more...

We examined the utility of a gaze cueing paradigm to examine sensitivity to differences among negatively valenced expressions. Participants judged target stimuli (dangerous or safe), the location of which was cued by the gaze direction of a central face. Dawel et al. reported that gaze cueing effects (faster response times on valid vs. invalid trials) were larger when the central face displayed fear than when it displayed happiness. Our aim was to determine whether this effect was specific to fear, to all threat-related expressions (fear, anger), or to all negatively valenced expressions (fear, anger, sadness, disgust) with the aim of using this protocol to study the development of implicit discrimination of negatively valenced expressions. Across five experiments in which we varied the number of models (1 vs. 4), the number of expressions (2 vs. 5), and the country of residence of participants (Canada vs. Australia) we found no evidence that the magnitude of gaze cueing effects is modulated by expression. We discuss our failure to replicate in the context of the broader literature. more...

Research examining children's understanding of emotional expressions has generally used static, isolated facial expressions presented in a non-interactive context. However, these tasks do not resemble children's experiences with expressions in daily life, where they must attend to a range of information, including others' facial expressions, movements, and the situation surrounding the expression. In this research, we examine the development of visual attention to another's emotional expressions during a live interaction. Via an eye-tracker, children (4-11 years old) and adults viewed an experimenter open a series of opaque boxes and make an expression (happiness, sadness, fear, or disgust) based on the object inside. Participants determined which of four possible objects (stickers, a broken toy, a spider, or dog poop) was in the box. We examined the proportion of the trial in which participants looked to three areas of the face (the eyes, mouth, and nose area), and the available contextual information (the box held by the experimenter, the four objects). Although children spent less time looking to the face than adults did, their pattern of visual attention within the face and to object AOIs did not differ from that of adults. Finally, for adults, increased accuracy was linked to spending less time looking to the objects whereas increased accuracy for children was not strongly linked to any emotion cue. These data indicate that although children spend less time looking to the face during live interactions than adults do, the proportion of time spent looking to areas of the face and context are generally adult-like., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.) more...

Objective : Our objective was to examine the co-occurrence of sleep problems and emotion dysregulation and its short- and long-term links to depressive symptoms and alcohol use in a sample of university students. Method : Participants included 1132 first-year university students from Southern Ontario (70.5% women). Time 1 data were collected in February/March, 2010, and Time 2 data ( n  = 746) were collected in February/March, 2014. Participants were surveyed about sleep problems and emotion dysregulation (Time 1), and depressive symptoms and alcohol use (Times 1 and 2). Results: A latent class analysis revealed four groups: (1) Low Co-Occurrence, (2) Sleep Problems Only, (3) Emotion Dysregulation Only, and (4) High Co-occurrence. Group 4 had more depressive symptoms than all other groups in both the short- and long-term. Conclusions: First year university students with high co-occurrence of sleep problems and emotion dysregulation may be a target group for programs focused on reducing adjustment difficulties. more...

Rats can emit 22-kHz or 50-kHz ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) in negative, as well as positive contexts which index their emotional state. 22-kHz USVs are emitted during aversive contexts and can be initiated by activation of the ascending cholinergic pathways originating from the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus or initiated pharmacologically by injection of cholinergic agonists into target areas of these pathways (medial cholinoceptive vocalization strip). Conversely, 50-kHz USVs are emitted during positive pro-social contexts and can be initiated by stimulation of ascending dopaminergic pathways originating from the ventral tegmental area or by injection of dopamine agonists into target areas of these pathways (nucleus accumbens shell). Recently, we have shown an inhibitory effect a positive emotional state has on the emission of carbachol-induced 22-kHz USVs from the anterior hypothalamic/medial preoptic area. However, this structure is a fragment of that cholinoceptive vocalization strip. We wanted to examine if we could observe similar effect when the aversive state is induced from the lateral septum, the most rostral division of the cholinoceptive vocalization strip. The results supported previous findings. First, microinjection of the dopamine agonist R-(-)-apomorphine into the nucleus accumbens shell resulted in increased emission of frequency modulated (FM) 50-kHz USVs that are regarded as signals expressing a positive emotional state in rats. Second, FM 50-kHz USVs and not flat (F) 50-kHz USVs were able to decrease 22-kHz USVs induced by microinjections of carbachol into the lateral septum. This research provides further support to the hypothesis that the initiation of a positive emotional state functionally antagonizes initiation of a negative emotional state in rats., (Copyright © 2019. Published by Elsevier Inc.) more...

Adults' first impressions of others are influenced by subtle facial expressions; happy faces are perceived as high in trustworthiness, whereas angry faces are rated as low in trustworthiness and high in threat and dominance. Little is known about the influence of emotional expressions on children's first impressions. Here we examined the influence of subtle expressions of happiness, anger, and fear on children's implicit judgments of trustworthiness and dominance with the aim of providing novel insights about both the development of first impressions and whether children are able to utilize emotional expressions when making implicit, rather than explicit, judgments of traits. In the context of a computerized storybook, children (4- to 11-year-olds) and adults selected one of two twins (two images of the same identity displaying different emotional expressions) to help them face a challenge; some challenges required a trustworthy partner, and others required a dominant partner. One twin posed a neutral expression, and the other posed a subtle emotional expression of happiness, fear, or anger. Whereas adults were more likely to select a happy partner on trust trials than on dominance trials and were more likely to select an angry partner on dominance trials than on trust trials, we found no evidence that children's choices reflected a combined influence of desirable trait and emotion. Follow-up experiments involving explicit trait judgments, explicit emotion recognition, and implicit first impression judgments in the context of intense emotional expressions provide valuable insights into the slow development of implicit trait judgments based on first impressions., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.) more...

Purpose: Findings from cross-sectional research indicate that the relationship between sleep quality and physical activity is mixed. For research that does indicate a significant association, the interpretation of the finding most often is that physical activity leads to better sleep, or less frequently, that better sleep leads to more involvement in physical activity (see sleep deprivation studies). Cross-sectional studies, however, are not able to assess the direction of these effects, and experimental studies have tested only one direction of the effects. Longitudinal studies, with their focus on temporal order, are needed to specifically examine the link between sleep and physical activity as well as the direction of effects. The current study had three goals: to examine 1) the longitudinal relationship between sleep and physical activity, 2) the direction of effects, and 3) whether emotion regulation mediates the relationship between sleep and physical activity., Methods: Participants included a sample of 827 (Mage at baseline = 19.04 yr, SD = 0.92 yr, 73.88% female) students at a university in Southwestern Ontario, who took part in a larger longitudinal survey that started in their first year of university. Participants were surveyed annually for 3 yr (2011, 2012, 2013; retention, 83.9%). Measures assessed sleep quality, physical activity, emotion regulation, and involvement in sports clubs., Results: A cross-lagged autoregressive path analysis revealed that sleep quality indirectly predicted increased high-, moderate-, and low-intensity physical activity over time through its positive effect on emotion regulation. Moderate levels of physical activity indirectly predicted sleep quality over time through emotion regulation., Conclusions: Overall, there appears to be support for a bidirectional relationship between sleep and physical activity over time (at least for moderate physical activity) but only indirectly through emotion regulation. more...

The current study examined whether emotions mediate the relationship between apologies and repaired trust following a transgression. Children (9- and 11-year-olds; N = 180) completed a two-round trust game where if they invested tokens in their counterpart, the tokens tripled in value and the counterpart would decide how many tokens to return. Based on participants' condition, either half of the tokens were returned, none of the tokens were returned, or none were returned followed by an apology. Children's investment in their counterpart in the second round of the trust game was a measure of trusting behavior. In addition, children completed an emotion evaluation measure of their feelings toward their counterpart. Results demonstrate that children who received an apology following a transgression were significantly more likely to demonstrate trusting behaviors and positive emotions compared with children who received no apology. In addition, both positive and negative emotions were found to mediate the effect of an apology on trust., (Copyright © 2018. Published by Elsevier Inc.) more...

Background: Adolescent and adult rats emit 50-kHz ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) to communicate the appetitive arousal and the presence of positive emotional states to conspecifics., New Method: Based on its communicative function, emission of 50-kHz USVs is increasingly being evaluated in preclinical studies of affective behavior, motivation and social behavior., Results: Emission of 50-kHz USVs is initiated by the activation of dopamine receptors in the shell subregion of the nucleus accumbens. However, several lines of evidence show that non-dopaminergic receptors may influence the numbers of 50-kHz USVs that are emitted, as well as the acoustic parameters of calls., Comparison With Existing Methods: Emission of 50-kHz USVs is a non-invasive method that may be used to study reward and motivation without the need for extensive training and complex animal manipulations. Moreover, emission of 50-kHz USVs can be used alone or combined with other well-standardized behavioral paradigms (e.g., conditioned place preference, self-administration)., Conclusions: This review summarizes the current evidence concerning molecular mechanisms that regulate the emission of 50-kHz USVs. Moreover, the review discusses the usefulness of 50-kHz USVs as an experimental tool to investigate how different neurotransmitter systems regulate the manifestations of positive emotional states, and also use of this tool in preclinical modeling of psychiatric diseases., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.) more...

The majority of studies of emotion perception have relied on static isolated facial expressions. These expressions differ markedly from real-world expressions that include movement and multiple cues (e.g., bodies), leaving our understanding of how expression perception develops incomplete. We examined the looking patterns of younger children (4- and 5-year-olds), older children (8- and 9-year-olds), and adults while watching dynamic video clips or static images of four different emotional expressions: happiness, sadness, anger, and fear. Expressions were presented in three conditions: face only, body only, and whole person (face and body). Children's and adults' looking patterns were affected by whether stimuli were static or dynamic and by which cues were available. Children looked to the head less for static stimuli than for dynamic stimuli, but this difference did not emerge for adults. Children and adults attended to different expression cues when presented with static images. These results demonstrate the need for increased use of dynamic stimuli in developmental studies of expression., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.) more...

Research shows that when semantic context makes it feel easier for people to bring related thoughts and images to mind, people can misinterpret that feeling of ease as evidence that information is positive. But research also shows that semantic context does more than help people bring known concepts to mind-it also teaches people new concepts. In five experiments, we show that when photos increase these feelings of learning, they also increase positive evaluations. People saw fictitious wine names and evaluated claims about each. Within subjects, wine names appeared with (or without) photos depicting the noun in the names. We found that photos promoted positive evaluations, did so most when they were most likely to help people learn new words, and even led people to think the wines tasted better. Together, these findings fit with the idea that semantic context promotes positive evaluations in part by teaching people new concepts. (PsycINFO Database Record, ((c) 2017 APA, all rights reserved).) more...

When two targets are presented within approximately 500 ms of each other in the context of rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP), participants' ability to report the second target is reduced compared to when the targets are presented further apart in time. This phenomenon is known as the attentional blink (AB). The AB is increased in magnitude when the first target is emotionally arousing. Emotionally arousing stimuli can also capture attention and create an AB-like effect even when these stimuli are presented as to-be-ignored distractor items in a single-target RSVP task. This phenomenon is known as emotion-induced blindness (EIB). The phenomenological similarity in the behavioral results associated with the AB with an emotional T1 and EIB suggest that these effects may result from similar underlying mechanisms - a hypothesis that we tested using event-related electrical brain potentials (ERPs). Behavioral results replicated those reported previously, demonstrating an enhanced AB following an emotionally arousing target and a clear EIB effect. In both paradigms highly arousing taboo/sexual words resulted in an increased early posterior negativity (EPN) component that has been suggested to represent early semantic activation and selection for further processing in working memory. In both paradigms taboo/sexual words also produced an increased late positive potential (LPP) component that has been suggested to represent consolidation of a stimulus in working memory. Therefore, ERP results provide evidence that the EIB and emotion-enhanced AB effects share a common underlying mechanism. more...

The aim of this study was to provide initial evidence of validity and reliability of scores derived from the Activity Context in Youth Sport Questionnaire (ACYSQ), an instrument designed to offer a comprehensive assessment of the activities adolescents take part in during sport practices. Two studies were designed for the purposes of item development and selection, and to provide evidence of structural and criterion validity of ACYSQ scores, respectively (N = 334; M age = 14.93, SD = 1.76 years). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) supported the adequacy of a 20-item ACYSQ measurement model, which was invariant across gender, and comprised the following dimensions: (1) stimulation; (2) usefulness-value; (3) authenticity; (4) repetition-boredom; and (5) ineffectiveness. Internal consistency reliability estimates and composite reliability estimates for ACYSQ subscale scores ranged from 0.72 to 0.91. In regression analyses, stimulation predicted enjoyment and perceived competence, ineffectiveness was significantly associated with perceived competence and authenticity emerged as a predictor of commitment in sport. These findings indicate that the ACYSQ displays adequate psychometric properties and the use of the instrument may be useful for studying selected activity-based features of the practice environment and their motivational consequences in youth sport. more...

Film clips and narrative text are useful techniques in eliciting emotion in a laboratory setting but have not been examined side-by-side using the same methodology. This study examined the self-identification of emotions elicited by film clip and narrative text stimuli to confirm that selected stimuli appropriately target the intended emotions. Seventy participants viewed 30 film clips, and 40 additional participants read 30 narrative texts. Participants identified the emotion experienced (happy, sad, angry, fearful, neutral-six stimuli each). Eighty-five percent of participants self-identified the target emotion for at least two stimuli for all emotion categories of film clips, except angry (only one) and for all categories of narrative text, except fearful (only one). The most effective angry text was correctly identified 74% of the time. Film clips were more effective in eliciting all target emotions in participants for eliciting the correct emotion (angry), intensity rating (happy, sad), or both (fearful). more...

Shyness and sociability are orthogonal personality dimensions, but little is known about how the two traits are instantiated in the brain and body. Using a 3-stimulus auditory oddball task, we examined whether shyness and sociability were distinguishable on P300 event-related potentials (ERPs) in processing task-relevant, novel, and standard auditory tones in 48 young adults. ERP amplitudes were measured at four midline scalp sites (Fz, FCz, Cz, Pz). We found that shyness, but not sociability, was related to reduced frontal novelty P300 amplitudes and to high emotionality. We also found that low baseline salivary cortisol levels mediated the relation between: (a) high shyness and reduced frontal P300 amplitudes to novel tones, and (b) high shyness and high scores of emotionality. We speculate that low baseline cortisol may serve as a putative mechanism influencing central attentional states of avoidance to threat and novelty and emotional arousal in adults who are shy., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.) more...

Objective: To examine the effectiveness of 2 affect recognition interventions (Faces and Stories) in people with a traumatic brain injury., Setting: Postacute rehabilitation facilities., Participants: A total of 203 participants with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury were screened; 71 were eligible and randomized to the Faces (n = 24), Stories (n = 23), and Control interventions (n = 24). Participants were an average of 39.8 years of age and 10.3 years postinjury; 74% of participants were male., Design: Randomized controlled trial with immediate, 3-month, and 6-month follow-up posttests. Interventions were 9 hours of computer-based training with a therapist., Measures: Diagnostic Assessment of Nonverbal Accuracy 2-Adult Faces; Emotional Inference From Stories Test; Empathy (Interpersonal Reactivity Index); and Irritability and Aggression (Neuropsychiatric Inventory)., Results: The Faces Intervention did significantly better than the Control Intervention on the Diagnostic Assessment of Nonverbal Accuracy 2-Adult Faces (P = .031) posttreatment; no time effect or group interaction was observed. No other significant differences were noted for the Faces Intervention. No significant differences were observed between the Stories and the Control Interventions; however, a significant time effect was found for the Emotional Inference From Stories Test., Conclusion: The Faces Intervention effectively improved facial affect recognition in participants with chronic post-traumatic brain injury, and changes were maintained for 6 months. Future work should focus on generalizing this skill to functional behaviors. more...

Purpose: Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) has been shown to co-occur with behavioral and language problems in school-aged children, but little is known as to when these problems begin to emerge, or if they are inherent in children with DCD. The purpose of this study was to determine if deficits in language and emotional-behavioral problems are apparent in preschool-aged children with movement difficulties., Method: Two hundred and fourteen children (mean age 4years 11months, SD 9.8months, 103 male) performed the Movement Assessment Battery for Children 2nd Edition (MABC-2). Children falling at or below the 16th percentile were classified as being at risk for movement difficulties (MD risk). Auditory comprehension and expressive communication were examined using the Preschool Language Scales 4th Edition (PLS-4). Parent-reported emotional and behavioral problems were assessed using the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL)., Results: Preschool children with diminished motor coordination (n=37) were found to have lower language scores, higher externalizing behaviors in the form of increased aggression, as well as increased withdrawn and other behavior symptoms compared with their typically developing peers., Conclusions: Motor coordination, language and emotional-behavioral difficulties tend to co-occur in young children aged 3-6years. These results highlight the need for early intervention., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.) more...

Despite the growing body of research linking sleep problems and social ties, research investigating the direction of effects between these two constructs is lacking. Furthermore, there remains a dearth of research examining the mechanisms that may explain the association between sleep problems and social ties within a longitudinal design. The present 3-year longitudinal study addressed two research questions: (1) Is there a bidirectional association between sleep problems and social ties at university? and (2) Does emotion regulation mediate the association between sleep problems and social ties at university? Participants (N = 942, 71.5% female; M = 19.01 years at Time 1, SD = 0.90) were university students who completed annual assessments of sleep problems, social ties, and emotion regulation, for three consecutive years. Results of path analysis indicated that the bidirectional association between sleep problems and social ties was statistically significant (controlling for demographics, sleep-wake inconsistency, sleep duration, and alcohol). Analyses of indirect effects indicated that emotion regulation mediated this link, such that better sleep quality (i.e., less sleep problems) led to more effective emotion regulation, which, subsequently, led to more positive social ties. In addition, more positive social ties led to more effective emotion regulation, which, in turn, led to less sleep problems. The findings highlight the critical role that emotional regulation plays in the link between sleep problems and social ties, and emphasize the need for students as well as university administration to pay close attention to both the sleep and social environment of university students. more...

Pharmacological studies of emotional arousal and initiation of emotional states in rats measured by their ultrasonic vocalizations are reviewed. It is postulated that emission of vocalizations is an inseparable feature of emotional states and it evolved from mother-infant interaction. Positive emotional states are associated with emission of 50 kHz vocalizations that could be induced by rewarding situations and dopaminergic activation of the nucleus accumbens and are mediated by D1, D2, and partially D3 dopamine receptors. Three biologically significant subtypes of 50 kHz vocalizations have been identified, all expressing positive emotional states: (1) flat calls without frequency modulation that serve as contact calls during social interactions; (2) frequencymodulated calls without trills that signal rewarding and significantly motivated situation; and (3) frequency-modulated calls with trills or trills themselves that are emitted in highly emotional situations associated with intensive affective state. Negative emotional states are associated with emission of 22 kHz vocalizations that could be induced by aversive situations, muscarinic cholinergic activation of limbic areas of medial diencephalon and forebrain, and are mediated by M2 muscarinic receptors. Two biologically significant subtypes of 22 kHz vocalizations have been identified, both expressing negative emotional sates: (1) long calls that serve as alarm calls and signal external danger; and (2) short calls that express a state of discomfort without external danger. The positive and negative states with emission of vocalizations are initiated by two ascending reticular activating subsystems: the mesolimbic dopaminergic subsystem as a specific positive arousal system, and the mesolimbic cholinergic subsystem as a specific negative arousal system. more...

Objectives: The purpose of this study was to examine the association between fitness-related pride and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). A secondary aim was to examine behavioural regulations consistent with organismic integration theory (OIT) as potential mechanisms of the pride-MVPA relationship., Design: This study used a cross-sectional design., Methods: Young adults (N = 465; Mage = 20.55; SDage = 1.75 years) completed self-report instruments of fitness-related pride, motivation and MVPA., Results: Both authentic and hubristic fitness-related pride demonstrated a moderate positive relationship with MVPA, as well as positive associations to more autonomous regulations. Behavioural regulations mediated the relationship between both facets of pride and MVPA with specific indirect effects noted for identified regulation and intrinsic motivation., Conclusion: Overall, these findings demonstrate the association between experiencing fitness-related pride and increased engagement in MVPA. The tenability of OIT was also demonstrated for offering insight into explaining the association between pride and physical activity engagement. more...

The reciprocal relationship between the mind and body has been a neglected process for improving the psychosocial care of cancer patients. Emotions form an important link between the mind and body. They play a fundamental role in the cognitive functions of decision-making and symptom control. Recognizing this relationship is important for integrative oncology. We define psychoeducation as the teaching of self-evaluation and self-regulation of the mind-body process. A gap exists between research evidence and implementation into clinical practice. The patients' search for self-empowerment through the pursuit of complementary therapies may be a surrogate for inadequate psychoeducation. Integrative oncology programs should implement psychoeducation that helps patients to improve both emotional and cognitive intelligence, enabling them to better negotiate cancer treatment systems. more...

Prior research has identified a facial expression for positive pride, but no expression for negative pride, hubris. In the present study, professional actors created expressions intended to convey hubris. In Study 1 (N = 52), participants were shown dynamic expressions and attributed confidence, positive valence, and positive personality traits to the positive pride expression, but conceit, neutral valence, and negative personality traits to the hubris expression. In Study 2 (N = 60), participants were more likely to attribute conceit to a dynamic hubris expression than a static one; no such difference was found for positive pride., (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved.) more...

The review summarizes evidences from extensive studies suggesting that ascending mesolimbic cholinergic system (AMCS) that terminates in vast areas of forebrain and diencephalic limbic areas is responsible for specific generation of aversive arousal and aversive emotional state. This state is accompanied by emission of threatening and/or alarming vocalizations that served as a quantitative measure of the emotional response. The AMCS originates from the cholinergic neurons within the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus that have widespread and diffuse ascending connections. Activity of the AMCS induced by activation of the muscarinic cholinergic receptors in the terminal fields of this system, or by glutamate stimulation of neurons of the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus, brings about aversive state with alarming vocalizations. It is postulated that release of acetylcholine from the terminals of the AMCS in the vast areas of the forebrain and diencephalon serves as the initiator of the aversive emotional state with concomitant manifestations and alarming vocal signaling. It is concluded that the AMCS serves as a specific physiological, psychological, and social arousing and alarming system. more...

The purpose of these studies was to develop a psychometrically sound measure of shame, guilt, authentic pride, and hubristic pride for use in body and appearance contexts. In Study 1, 41 potential items were developed and assessed for item quality and comprehension. In Study 2, a panel of experts (N=8; M=11, SD=6.5 years of experience) reviewed the scale and items for evidence of content validity. Participants in Study 3 (n=135 males, n=300 females) completed the BASES and various body image, personality, and emotion scales. A separate sample (n=155; 35.5% male) in Study 3 completed the BASES twice using a two-week time interval. The BASES subscale scores demonstrated evidence for internal consistency, item-total correlations, concurrent, convergent, incremental, and discriminant validity, and 2-week test-retest reliability. The 4-factor solution was a good fit in confirmatory factor analysis, reflecting body-related shame, guilt, authentic and hubristic pride subscales of the BASES. The development and validation of the BASES may help advance body image and self-conscious emotion research by providing a foundation to examine the unique antecedents and outcomes of these specific emotional experiences., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.) more...

Objective: Studies of facial affect recognition by people with traumatic brain injury (TBI) have shown this to be a significant problem. Vocal affect recognition also appears to be challenging for this population, but little is known about the degree to which one modality is impaired compared to the other. This study compared facial and vocal affect recognition of high and low intensity emotion expressions in people with moderate-to-severe TBI., Methods: The Diagnostic Analysis of Nonverbal Accuracy-2 (Adult Faces; Voices) was administered to 203 participants with TBI., Results: Adults with TBI identified vocal emotion expressions with greater accuracy than facial emotion expressions. Facial affect recognition impairment was identified in 34% of participants, 22% were classified as having vocal affect recognition impairment and 15% showed impairment in both modalities. Participants were significantly less accurate at identifying low vs high intensity emotion expressions in both modalities. Happy facial expressions were significantly better identified than all other emotions. Errors were distributed across the emotion categories for vocal expressions., Conclusions: The degree of facial affect impairment was significantly greater than vocal affect impairment in this sample of people with moderate-to-severe TBI. Low intensity emotion expressions were particularly problematic and an advantage for positively valenced facial emotion expressions was indicated. more...

Shyness in healthy controls has been related to early event-related potential (ERP) responses to emotional faces. Patients with schizophrenia typically demonstrate increased shyness that is stable and related to reduced social functioning. We indexed early ERP responses to emotional faces in relation to shyness in 40 outpatients with schizophrenia and 39 healthy controls. Patients with low-to-medium shyness showed reductions in P100 amplitude to emotional compared to neutral faces as shyness increased. Patients reporting medium-to-high shyness demonstrated the opposite pattern; P100 amplitude sharply increased as shyness increased, possibly reflecting heightened vigilance. When a restricted range of shyness scores was used to equalize scores between groups, patients showed increased N170 amplitude to emotional faces as shyness increased, whereas controls demonstrated the opposite pattern. The implications of the findings are discussed with respect to informing vulnerability to social functioning impairment and psychosocial stress in this population., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.) more...

The accuracy and speed with which emotional facial expressions are identified is influenced by body postures. Two influential models predict that these congruency effects will be largest when the emotion displayed in the face is similar to that displayed in the body: the emotional seed model and the dimensional model. These models differ in whether similarity is based on physical characteristics or underlying dimensions of valence and arousal. Using a 3-alternative forced-choice task in which stimuli were presented briefly (Exp 1a) or for an unlimited time (Exp 1b) we provide evidence that congruency effects are more complex than either model predicts; the effects are asymmetrical and cannot be accounted for by similarity alone. Fearful postures are especially influential when paired with facial expressions, but not when presented in a flanker task (Exp 2). We suggest refinements to each model that may account for our results and suggest that additional studies be conducted prior to drawing strong theoretical conclusions. more...

Past studies found that, for preschoolers, a story specifying a situational cause and behavioural consequence is a better cue to fear and disgust than is the facial expression of those two emotions, but the facial expressions used were static. Two studies (Study 1: N = 68, 36-68 months; Study 2: N = 72, 49-90 months) tested whether this effect could be reversed when the expressions were dynamic and included facial, postural, and vocal cues. Children freely labelled emotions in three conditions: story, still face, and dynamic expression. Story remained a better cue than still face or dynamic expression for fear and disgust and also for the later emerging emotions of embarrassment and pride., (© 2013 The British Psychological Society.) more...

Adult rats emit two categories of ultrasonic vocalizations, 22 kHz calls and 50 kHz calls. These vocalizations communicate animal's emotional state to other members of the social group. Production of social vocalizations is an evolutionary old activity in vertebrates, and is regulated by well-preserved brain circuitries. The 22 kHz calls express negative, aversive state and are initiated by activity of the mesolimbic cholinergic system originating from laterodorsal tegmental nucleus. The 50 kHz calls express positive, appetitive state and are initiated by activity of the mesolimbic dopaminergic system originating from the ventral tegmental area. The 22 kHz calls serve as warning and alarm calls, while the 50 kHz calls serve as affiliative and social-cooperating calls. These specie-specific vocalizations play role of ethological transmitters, termed ethotransmitters, that is, they are species-specific signals that are selectively recognized by receivers and have capability of changing emotional state of the receivers., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.) more...

Adults' and 8-year-old children's perception of emotional faces is disrupted when faces are presented in the context of incongruent body postures (e.g., when a sad face is displayed on a fearful body) if the two emotions are highly similar (e.g., sad/fear) but not if they are highly dissimilar (e.g., sad/happy). The current research investigated the emergence of this adult-like pattern. Using a sorting task, we identified the youngest age at which children could accurately sort isolated facial expressions and body postures and then measured whether their accuracy was impaired in the incongruent condition. Among the child participants, 6-year-olds showed congruency effects for sad/fear, but even 4-year-olds did not do so for sad/happy. Early emergence of this adult-like pattern is consistent with the dimensional and emotional seed models of emotion perception, although future research is needed to test the relative validity of these two models. Testing children with emotional faces presented in the context of body postures and background scenes is an important step toward understanding how they perceive emotions on a daily basis., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.) more...

The current research investigated the influence of body posture on adults' and children's perception of facial displays of emotion. In each of two experiments, participants categorized facial expressions that were presented on a body posture that was congruent (e.g., a sad face on a body posing sadness) or incongruent (e.g., a sad face on a body posing fear). Adults and 8-year-olds made more errors and had longer reaction times on incongruent trials than on congruent trials when judging sad versus fearful facial expressions, an effect that was larger in 8-year-olds. The congruency effect was reduced when faces and bodies were misaligned, providing some evidence for holistic processing. Neither adults nor 8-year-olds were affected by congruency when judging sad versus happy expressions. Evidence that congruency effects vary with age and with similarity of emotional expressions is consistent with dimensional theories and "emotional seed" models of emotion perception., (2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.) more...

We examined emotion regulation (ER) in intergenerational helping relationships involving 77 older mother-adult daughter dyads. Participants' ER strategies (passive, proactive) and ER goals (self-oriented, other oriented) were considered as predictors of their own and their partners' satisfaction with, and their positive and negative affective reactions to, the helping relationship. For mothers and daughters, greater use of passive ER strategies predicted greater negative affect, lower satisfaction, and less positive affect for themselves, as well as partner reports of lower satisfaction and (for daughters only) greater negative affect. Mothers' and daughters' use of proactive strategies predicted lower negative affect for themselves, and daughters' use of proactive ER strategies predicted lower negative affect for their mothers. Mothers' and daughters' endorsement of other-oriented ER goals predicted greater satisfaction and positive affect for themselves. Results are considered in the context of the larger literature concerning intergenerational helping relationships. more...

This investigation used adaptation aftereffects to examine developmental changes in the perception of facial expressions. Previous studies have shown that adults' perceptions of ambiguous facial expressions are biased following adaptation to intense expressions. These expression aftereffects are strong when the adapting and probe expressions share the same facial identity but are mitigated when they are posed by different identities. We extended these findings by comparing expression aftereffects and categorical boundaries in adults versus 5- to 9-year-olds (n=20/group). Children displayed adult-like aftereffects and categorical boundaries for happy/sad by 7 years of age and for fear/anger by 9 years of age. These findings suggest that both children and adults perceive expressions according to malleable dimensions in which representations of facial expression are partially integrated with facial identity. more...

Unlabelled: Persons with traumatic brain injury (TBI) often have difficulty recognizing emotion in others. This is likely due to difficulties in interpreting non-verbal cues of affect. Although deficits in interpreting facial cues of affect are being widely explored, interpretation of vocal cues of affect has received much less attention. Accurate interpretation of vocal affect cues is important, particularly when facial cues are absent or ambiguous. These cues also contribute to more accurate identification of emotion. The neural substrates of facial and vocal affect recognition appear to be shared, further contributing to improved bimodal processing. This article discusses the importance of vocal affect cues in interpreting emotion. Expression of vocal affect in persons with TBI is also briefly discussed since difficulty in controlling and manipulating vocal cues of emotion when speaking may also contribute to poor social outcomes. A review of the literature in acoustic parameters that contribute to identification and expression of emotions is followed by a discussion on the integration of visual and auditory cues in bimodal processing and the relationship between facial and vocal affect in persons with TBI., Learning Outcomes: Readers will be able to: 1) Identify the parameters primarily used to describe the acoustic characteristics of vocal affect; 2) Describe the acoustic parameters typically associated with Anger, Fear, Happiness and Sadness; 3) Describe the difficulties experienced by persons with TBI in the perception and integration of facial and vocal cues of affect. more...

Sensation seeking has been characterized as a desire to seek novel, intense sensations, and the willingness to take risks in pursuing them. In two separate studies of young adults, we examined the relation between measures of sensation seeking and the pattern of resting frontal EEG asymmetry, thought to reflect a biological predisposition to approach new experiences. As predicted, high sensation seeking was related to a greater relative left frontal activity at rest in both studies, which may be specific to men. How greater relative left frontal cortical activity at rest is related to a tendency to engage in sensation-seeking and risky behaviors is discussed. more...

Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is involved in the modulation of autonomic activity, emotional responsivity, and the monitoring of goal-directed behavior. However, these functions are rarely studied together to determine how they relate or whether their pattern of relation changes with age. We recorded respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA), an index of autonomic activity, error-related event related potentials (ERN/Pe), generated in ACC, and the self-reported intensity of 5 basic emotions in older and younger adults. Emotional intensity did not differ with age. The ERN/Pe and RSA were reduced with age and related specifically to sadness intensity for both groups. When examined together, RSA accounted for the relation between ERN/Pe and sadness. This is consistent with a model of medial prefrontal function in which autonomic processes mediate the relation between cognitive control and affective regulation, a pattern that also did not differ with age. more...

This study investigated the effects of postural threat on the cortical response associated with postural reactions to predictable and unpredictable perturbations to upright stance. Postural threat was manipulated by having individuals stand on an elevated surface to alter the context in which the postural task was performed. Ten healthy young adults experienced a series of predictable and unpredictable trunk perturbations when standing at ground level and at the edge of a platform located 3.2 m above the ground. Participants felt less confident, more fearful of falling, more anxious and less stable when standing at the high surface height. Unpredictable perturbations generated a large negative potential (N1) which was increased by 84% when standing at the high compared to low surface height. The magnitude of change in this potential was related to the magnitude of change in balance perceptions, such as confidence and fear. Predictable perturbations did not generate a N1 potential but instead produced an anticipation-related potential prior to the perturbation. This cortical activity observed in response to predictable perturbations was not influenced by postural threat. A large N1 potential was observed for a 'surprise' perturbation that followed a series of predictable perturbations. There was a trend for the amplitude of this potential to be increased when standing at the high compared to low surface height. The results of this study provide evidence for the modulating influence of psychological factors related to postural threat on the cortical activity associated with postural reactions to unpredictable perturbations. more...

Adult rats produce two distinct types of ultrasonic vocalizations referred to as 22- and 50-kHz calls, respectively. Emission of the respective calls represents signaling a negative or positive state of the rat organism. The signaling has an adaptive value for survival and/or well-being of rats and their social groups. Literature is reviewed from studies on cats and rats, which indicates that the positive or negative states constitute a complex and integrated set of somatic, autonomic, endocrine, affective, and cognitive correlates. The basic states and their correlates are initiated, integrated, and maintained by activity of the subsets of the ascending cholinergic and dopaminergic systems originating from the reticular brainstem core. The cholinergic and dopaminergic systems interact mutually to form a dynamic balance, which is involved in a decision-making process of initiating and maintaining one or the other of these states. Activation of the relevant portion of the ascending cholinergic system invariably induces the negative state and releases 22-kHz calls while activation of the ascending dopaminergic system induces the positive state with 50-kHz calls. The 22- and 50-kHz calls have distinct and mostly non-overlapping acoustic parameters, which ensure unambiguous recognition of the calls and thus, the state of the emitter. The animal may only signal one of the states at any given time and emission of 22- or 50-kHz calls is mutually exclusive. It is postulated, therefore, that these two main types of ultrasonic calls are reliable indicator variables of two opposing states of the adult rat organism: negative or positive. more...