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As the world grapples with the energy crisis, integrating renewable energy sources into the power grid has become increasingly crucial. Microgrids have emerged as a vital solution to this challenge. However, the reliance on renewable energy sources in microgrids often leads to low inertia. Renewable energy sources interfaced with the network through interlinking converters lack the inertia of conventional synchronous generators, and hence, need to provide frequency support through virtual inertia techniques. This paper presents a new control algorithm that utilizes the reinforcement learning agents Twin Delayed Deep Deterministic Policy Gradient (TD3) and Deep Deterministic Policy Gradient (DDPG) to support the frequency in low-inertia microgrids. The RL agents are trained using the system-linearized model and then extended to the nonlinear model to reduce the computational burden. The proposed system consists of an AC–DC microgrid comprising a renewable energy source on the DC microgrid, along with constant and resistive loads. On the AC microgrid side, a synchronous generator is utilized to represent the low inertia of the grid, which is accompanied by dynamic and static loads. The model of the system is developed and verified using Matlab/Simulink and the reinforcement learning toolbox. The system performance with the proposed AI-based methods is compared to conventional low-pass and high-pass filter (LPF and HPF) controllers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Active dc distribution systems are gaining widespread acceptance in modern power distribution grids. Islanding detection is very crucial for safety and protection purposes in active distribution systems; therefore, distributed generators (DGs) are usually equipped with active islanding detection methods to detect grid disconnection conditions. The high penetration level of tightly regulated converters to interface both DGs and loads and the poorly damped LC networks structured by the filtering inductors, feeder impedances, and bus capacitors can cause severe stability problems. This paper presents an impedance-based analysis of a grid-connected dc active distribution system, where DGs equipped with active positive feedback islanding detection schemes and a high penetration level of constant power loads (CPLs) are considered. The output impedance of a DG equipped with active islanding detection schemes is derived, and the interactions of the system impedances are discussed to characterize the dynamics of the dc distribution system. Moreover, the performance of multiple DG systems with the islanding detection schemes is investigated and thoroughly addressed. A simple, yet effective, stabilization method is also developed. Detailed time-domain nonlinear simulations and experimental results validate the analytical results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The direct current (DC) technology has gained significant momentum in modern distribution systems due to the high penetration levels of dc loads and dc-based distributed generators (DGs). Unlike conventional ac distribution systems, dc distribution systems have the following distinct features that challenge the system stability. 1) The high penetration level of tightly regulated converters used to interface both DGs and loads yields a destabilizing constant power load (CPL) effect in a considerable range of frequencies. 2) The filtering inductors and capacitors form poorly damped LC networks that interact negatively with the CPLs leading to further deterioration of the system stability. 3) Because islanding in a dc system can be hardly detected with passive methods due the absence of the frequency and reactive power terms, DGs are usually equipped with active islanding detection methods to detect the grid disconnection state; however, the islanding detection schemes could negatively impact the distribution system stability. The analysis and mitigation of undesirable interaction dynamics in a dc distribution system considering the aforementioned practical characteristics are not reported in the current literature. In this paper, the interaction dynamics of a dc distribution system characterized by a high penetration level of CPLs, and DGs equipped with positive feedback islanding detection scheme are investigated. The factors affecting the system stability with a single and multiple DGs are thoroughly addressed. Further, a stabilizing compensation loop is proposed to mitigate the stability problems and poor damping capability. Detailed time-domain nonlinear simulations and experimental results validate the analytical results. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Due to the high penetration level of dc-based distributed generators (DGs) and dc loads, dc distribution systems are gaining widespread acceptance in modern power grids. Therefore, dc distribution systems are expected to operate parallel to the existing ac ones. However, the techniques of islanding detection in dc grids have not been fully studied in the current literature. This paper presents a detailed analysis, performance comparison, and design guidelines of four different positive feedback islanding detection methods in dc distribution systems. In each method, the range of control parameters that guarantee system stability is analytically obtained. The effects of system parameters, such as the dc system resistance and inductance, DG filter capacitance, and local load resistance, on each islanding detection method, are thoroughly addressed. Furthermore, the interactions between DGs connected at different locations of the distribution feeder and equipped with positive feedback islanding detection methods are studied and characterized. Detailed time-domain nonlinear simulations and experimental results validate the analytical results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]