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Sixty-seven school finance reforms (SFRs) in 26 states have taken place since 1990; however, there is little empirical evidence on the heterogeneity of SFR effects. We provide a comprehensive description of how individual reforms affected resource allocation to low- and high-income districts within states, including both financial and non-financial outcomes. After summarizing the heterogeneity of individual SFR impacts, we then examine its correlates, identifying both policy and legislative/political factors. Taken together, this research aims to provide a rich description of variation in states' responses to SFRs, as well as explanation of this heterogeneity as it relates to contextual factors.

Since 1869, Vermont has operated a viable voucher system in 90 towns. During 1998-99, the state paid tuition for 6,505 K-12 students to attend public and private schools. As discussions about vouchers and educational reform grow, critics contend that vouchers are a new, untested concept and therefore must be implemented on an extremely limited, experimental basis. They argue that vouchers will lead to the establishment of fringe schools, skim the best and the brightest students from public schools, drain public schools of revenue, destroy a sense of community, and create transportation-related problems. Vermont's longstanding program has done none of these things. The state collects no more information on voucher students than it does on students in general. There has been no public outcry for more information to be compiled to justify the system's continuation. Overall, Vermonters assume that it is a parent's prerogative to select a child's school, and the burden of proof is on those who seek to take that choice away. Choice patterns in Vermont suggest that the voucher system expands educational opportunities by giving families access to public and private schools that would otherwise be closed to them because of residency requirements or financial barriers. (SM)

This case study examines how rural K-12 single-unit schools in Vermont have responded to the twin pressures of higher state-level standards, required under the 1984 Public School Approval (PSA) policy, and limited fiscal resources. Chapter 1 provides background information on the study population, economic and educational conditions in Vermont, and PSA standards and review processes. In chapter 2, a literature review considers the diverse, special characteristics of small, rural schools. Chapter 3 describes inputs, process indicators, outcome indicators, and qualitative characteristics of the 10 K-12 schools studied and summarizes the impact of PSA on their finances and curricula. This section also discusses how two comparable schools coped somewhat differently with school improvement mandates and limited funding. The results indicate that rural schools are facing the challenge of small size and fiscal constraints with distance learning, independent study, cross-disciplinary teaching, and multi-age groupings. Chapter 4 considers various strategies for improving educational quality at an affordable cost, including funding strategies, financial management, school-community cooperation, distance learning technologies, the 4-day school week, and integrated services. The last chapter concludes that the PSA has had a substantial impact on K-12 schools in terms of personnel appointments, curricular revisions, and facility improvements, but that these gains may be short-lived if the contingent fiscal problems are not solved. Appendices include K-12 schools statistical data, school site statistical profiles, and school site visitation summaries. Contains 101 references. (LP)

This brief tells the story of Lumina Foundation's and states' efforts to promote an equity agenda for higher education, featuring the 2015 Equity Policy Academy-- which focused on improving educational equity for students from historically underserved groups--as a turning point. Based primarily on interviews with Lumina staff and key state leaders from the five states that participated in the Academy--Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, Vermont, and Virginia--this story is designed to highlight the unique path each state took to prioritize equity in postsecondary attainment, and inspire ideas for leaders in other states.

This paper focuses on engaging and enabling educators to play new roles and take new leadership in the paradigm shift between traditional and competency-based education: a system of learning designed to ensure that all learners are prepared with the knowledge, skills and dispositions to be successful lifelong learners. The paper re-envisions professional practice, learning and development for competency-based education. It describes a teaching profession that is equity-oriented, learning-centered and lifelong, and details strategies that can help realize this paradigm shift. Throughout, the author builds on exemplars of success across the nation and explores how communities can work together to coordinate and sustain complex systems change. She begins with a reflection on adaptive change, exploring the questions, "what is the purpose of competency-based education?" and "what traditional beliefs and values does competency-based education challenge? What core assumptions about the teaching profession must we confront and shift if we want to transform it?" After engaging with these questions, specific technical changes needed to actually shift professional culture and practice at scale are explored. The author then seeks to answer the questions, "what systems, structures and policies do we need to put in place to support a paradigm shift in teaching practice?" and, "how can educators, young people and communities lead this work?" [This paper was written in collaboration with a Technical Advisory Group (TAG) of national competency-based education experts.]

A significant movement is underway across the nation to design K-12 assessment systems that better equip stakeholders to provide an equitable and excellent education to each child. While some of these innovations emerged before the pandemic, the massive disruption to instruction fueled a new urgency to rethink the potential of assessments to drive better teaching and learning. States and communities are working together to create more balanced systems of assessment that better support instruction while still providing the information necessary to inform policy and resource decisions. There is much to learn from the ideas emerging across the nation--particularly where states are trying to innovate despite limitations of federal policy. The insights and innovations emerging from this paper have the potential to cast a new vision for K-12 assessment in the United States. This work details efforts across the nation to encourage, support and grow innovative state assessment systems, and represents a significant increase in recent state-level energy and action around new forms of assessment to provide deeper and more meaningful understanding of student learning. [Additional producers of this report are Center for Innovation in Education (C!E), Envision Learning Partners, and the Great Schools Partnership.]

"School Readiness Indicators: Making Progress for Young Children" was a multi-state initiative that used child well-being indicators to build a change agenda in states and local communities in order to improve school readiness and ensure early school success. The central premise behind this initiative was that top-notch school readiness indicator systems at the state and local levels can be used to build support for early childhood investments. The task of the 17 participating states was to develop a comprehensive set of school readiness indicators from birth through third grade. The attention to tracking state level outcomes for the youngest children was a unique focus of the initiative's work. The 17 states involved in the initiative assembled teams comprised of government leaders, child advocates, and researchers to accomplish the following objectives: (1) create a set of measurable indicators related to and defining school readiness that can be tracked regularly over time at the state and local levels; (2) have states and local governments adopt this indicators-based definition of school readiness, fill in the gaps in data availability, track data over time, and report findings to their citizens; and (3) stimulate policy, program, and other actions to improve the ability of all children to read at grade level by the end of third grade. This paper discusses how states participating in this ground breaking initiative understood the importance of addressing the comprehensive nature of school readiness. It also provides examples of the many ways states have used their school readiness indicators to change policy on behalf of young children and their families. [This brief was produced by Voices for America's Children. The 17 State School Readiness Indicators Initiative was sponsored by the David and Lucile Packard, Kauffman, and Ford Foundations and managed by Rhode Island KIDS COUNT. This paper is based on the work of the School Readiness Indicator Teams in each of the 17 states.]

This brief is based on the 61-page report of the same name. This paper, commissioned by the Brookings Institution, studies the emergence of the mixed delivery model, in which pre-kindergarten is delivered in community-based settings and schools. It describes findings of a state survey CLASP conducted to understand the policy choices, opportunities, and challenges of including community-based child care providers in pre-kindergarten programs. At the conclusion of the study period for this paper (November 2004), at least 29 states that are currently operating at least one pre-kindergarten program using a mixed delivery approach were found. Those states are: Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Illinois, Iowa, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nevada, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Carolina, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. Other states, for example Florida, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, are considering or expanding pre-kindergarten policies but were not yet established enough to be included in our study. This policy brief describes principal approaches to state implementation of the mixed delivery model but does not provide examples of state policies. (Contains 1 figure.)

This paper examines the responses of four high schools to new accountability policies in two states, New York and Vermont. In each state, one school that was better positioned with respect to the policy and one that was a target of the policy were studied. New York's policy attaches high stakes for students though the Regents high school exit examination. In Vermont, school accountability is part of a broader policy of comprehensive finance equalization and a self-assessment action planning process. In both states theories of action assume that performance information from the accountability system will drive change. Schools were examined through interviews with key personnel, including teachers. The variations between the types of schools in response to the policies far exceeded the variation attributable to state policy design. In the high-performing schools, the policies in both cases put a spotlight on helping low-performing students. In the low-performing schools in both states there was a pattern of compliance without capacity with minimal meaningful or productive engagement on the part of the staff. The needs of the two low-performing schools suggest blind spots in the state policies with respect to theory, use of data, incentives, and short-term, school-level goals. The common patterns suggest that state policymakers need to rethink policy instruments for the lowest performing schools. (SLD)

The success of alternative assessments such as the Vermont Assessment Program (VAP) is heavily dependent on the involvement and commitment of teachers. This paper focuses on the implementation of the writing portfolio component of the VAP in the classrooms of four teachers who have different knowledge and beliefs about teaching and assessment. The historical context and basic structure of the writing portion of the VAP are described. Vermont schools, which are predominantly rural, have a long tradition of local governance, teacher autonomy, and inclusion of students with disabilities in the regular classroom. Four experienced fifth-grade teachers, first-time implementors of the VAP, were studied to determine the effects of this policy on teachers in different contexts. These four teachers represent four different belief cultures: curriculum-oriented, process-inquiry, polytheoretic, and minimalist. There were varying degrees and types of influences in these four classrooms as a result of their first year of participation in the portfolio system. The teachers began with different beliefs and practices, approached the VAP task differently, and finished with different degrees of involvement at the end of the year. The influence of the VAP in the classrooms ranged from none to changes in organizational procedures, to students writing more and producing more kinds of writing, and to students engaging in a new process of reflection and self-evaluation. Results suggest the need for long-range, flexible, and multidimensional approaches to professional development and the implementation of alternative assessment. An appendix provides an analytical writing assessment guide. (Contains 4 figures and 18 references.) (SLD)

This paper traces the historical context of the passage and implementation of Vermont's Act 230 in 1990, which initiated a new special education funding system to increase equity, predictability, and flexibility in program design as well as to ensure placement neutrality. Specific objectives of the funding system included increasing the use of prereferral services for children with diverse needs and the inclusion of children with disabilities in regular classes. The funding formula has three components: (1) a mainstream block grant to school districts based on total student enrollment; (2) an extraordinary service reimbursement providing compensation to districts for unusually high-cost individual cases; and (3) an intensive services reimbursement to help with all remaining allowable special education costs not otherwise covered. This paper relates this reform to special education policy, programs, and services; discusses the objectives for reform and the mechanics of the new funding system; reviews the results to date of an ongoing statewide evaluation; and presents a summary of interviews with state- and local-level constituents during the fourth year of implementation of the new formula. Contains seven references. (DB)

In the upper northeast corner of the United States, the commitment to competency education has grown so strong that entire states are embracing it through high-leverage comprehensive policies. Of the six New England states -- Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont -- four have established comprehensive state policies that seek 100 percent of districts to offer competency-based diplomas; one has created a permissive policy so that any district that wants to can become competency-based without expectation that they do so; and only one, Massachusetts, continues to stay the course despite the obstacles created by the traditional time-based system. In the first section of this paper, the core concepts of competency education will be introduced. In the next section, the author looks at the question of why and how the region of New England, with some of the most high-achieving education systems, has embraced competency education. The third section seeks to glean insights from across the states. The final section provides an early analysis about the impact of state strategies toward quality and equity, scaling, and sustainability. In the appendix, readers will find a synopsis of each state strategy, complemented by short case studies of districts and schools.

The most common configuration for the middle level is for grades 6-8 to be housed together. Although not a common configuration, there are some ninth grade only campuses sprinkled throughout the United States. Many of these schools were designed to address overcrowding issues either at the middle or high school while some were designed to help encourage a higher retention rate. The most common high school configuration is for grades 9-12 to be together. Schools for 11th & 12th grades seem to be mostly vocational. Although solid data on student achievement and its relationship to which configurations are thought to be the best is sparse, the research does cite areas for consideration when a district is examining various grade configurations. Cited in this paper are the areas for general consideration; the philosophy of meeting the needs of students in the middle grades according to the National Middle School Association and for high school according to "Breaking Ranks"; and some pros and cons for an 8th & 9th grade campus and a 9th grade only campus. (Contains 10 online resources.)

This paper examines the politics of special education finance reform in three states (Oregon, Pennsylvania, and Vermont) that have enacted substantial legislative change within the past 5 years. These case studies were extracted from presentations made by the three state directors of special education at a 1994 conference. Each case study includes two sections. The first section provides a brief description of the history and rationale for change in each state and an overview of the current formula. The second section comprises each state director's description of how change was accomplished and the lessons learned that pertain to the politics of special education finance reform. Following the three state profiles is a series of questions accompanied by the directors' replies. Several common elements for successful reform emerge from the three studies. These include: (1) the importance of timing in overcoming contrary pressures and successfully implementing special education finance reform; (2) the importance of public relations in successfully legislating reform; (3) the need for an understanding and resolution of the politics of the situation; and (4) the need for postreform evaluative data. (Contains 15 references.) (DB)

This case study was undertaken in order to discover if there are different types of policy language, and, if so, to describe relationships betweeen policy language types and policy implementation. Content analysis of three drafts of the state educational policy, "Standards for Approving Vermont's Public Schools," demonstrated the presence of three types of policy language: philosophical (which describes a goal), professional (which describes the desired output of an activity), and prescriptive (which mandates an activity or stipulates certain conditions). During the policy making process, individuals and interest groups attempted to influence policy by shifting statements from one language category to another. Content analysis revealed random discrepancies between the approved policy and regulatory guidelines. Policy language type had minimal impact during policy implementation by school personnel, unless significant implementation conditions were present. For external evaluators, however, policy language type evoked differential responses. The study concludes that policy detached from the conditions for implementation is not likely to be reflected in school practice. (TE)

Vermont experienced a rapid expansion of federal childhood funding and programs (accompanied by their voluminous and sometimes contradictory regulations), and identified the need to unify the system after recognizing that the complexity of the early childhood education service delivery system was bewildering for parent-consumers. This report describes the process and initial actions of the "ad hoc Early Education, Child Care Work Group" that designed a plan to unify child care and early education services in Vermont by improving collaboration and removing barriers. The report contains Vermont's Early Education/Child Care Action Plan and describes the state's goals which include developing: (1) community early childhood settings throughout the state that will demonstrate enhanced capacity to integrate specialized services (for example, mental health, special education, health, and parent education) and their programs; (2) compatible child development standards in the areas of personnel, program, service delivery, and facility; (3) accreditation, by national accrediting bodies, of all early education and child care programs. Other recommendations pertain to the coordination and integration of training and resources. The report also contains descriptions of child care coordinating programs in Iowa, Virginia, New York, and Florida. Appendices include the interview questions for participants in the session; fact sheets to be filled in for programs; a reading list for work session participants; definitions of commonly used terms; and an outline of the planning process used to create action plans. (SM)

America's K-12 education system faces three significant challenges: (1) increased global demands for skilled workers, (2) significant financial shortfalls, and (3) a looming teacher shortage. Independently, these factors present significant challenges for U.S. schools. In combination, they create a national imperative for swift action to create a more innovative, effective, and efficient education system. Every day, creative educators are using technology better to meet the needs of students and teachers. Technology can no longer be considered an "add-on" tool in education but rather one that is integral. Embracing online-learning opportunities for students and teachers will strengthen the supply and quality of teachers, improve efficiency, and increase students' college and career readiness. This paper summarizes information about: (1) online-learning opportunities in Vermont; (2) the presence of Vermont state policies that support online learning; and (3) how federal policy supports online learning in Vermont. (Contains 10 sources.)