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The present study investigates affective-motivational, attention, and learning effects of unexplored emotional design manipulation: "Contextual animation" (animation of contextual elements) in multimedia learning game (MLGs) for children. Participants (N = 134; M[subscript age] = 9.25; Grades 3 and 4) learned either from an experimental version of the MLG with a high amount of contextual animation or from an identical MLG with no contextual animation (control). Children strongly preferred (X[superscript 2] = 87.04, p < 0.001) and found the experimental version more attractive (p < 0.001, d = -1.11). No significant differences in overall enjoyment and learning outcomes were found. Attention differences, measured by dwell times and fixation durations, were small and reached only borderline significance (p = 0.035; d = -0.39). The implication is that contextual animation in MLG for children increases such instructional materials' attractiveness without compromising cognitive processes needed for learning; however, it does not lead to their higher instructional efficiency.

We explored whether problem-solving interactivity within an instructional game fosters learning for children aged 8-10 years. Participants (N=139) studied a biological topic either through a game-based learning environment (in which they solved assigned problems by interacting with a plant model) or from a standard learning environment (in which they observed how the problems were solved in an animation) (i.e., between-subject design). The treatments were equal with regard to learning content and guidance. No between-group differences in learning outcomes were detected (comprehension: d=0.16; transfer: d=-0.01). Self-rating of enjoyment tended to be higher in the game group (d=0.32), and when the children could choose between the treatments in a free-choice period, they strongly preferred the interactive game (87.5%). The results suggest that both the interactive and the non-interactive treatments are useful, but their applicability may differ depending on the learning context (e.g., school vs. home).

Little is known about what design elements in digital learning games enhance learning; especially in the case of child audiences. This study examines the effects of a learning game's visual design on perceived attractiveness and learning outcomes. We developed two visual designs for the game: one with supposedly high esthetic value and another with a low esthetic value. Participants (children between 9 and 11 years of age, N = 53) were randomly divided into two groups. Each group interacted with their assigned version for about 20 minutes and then evaluated its visual attractiveness without knowing about the other version. Then, they evaluated the attractiveness of the complementary version. As the next step, they evaluated both versions side-by-side. During the free-choice period, children could continue playing one of the game versions or a different game. They clearly preferred the high esthetic version in evaluations (d > 0.86) and in the free-choice period (62% preferred the high esthetic version of the target game), but this did not improve their learning outcomes (comprehension: d = -0.59; transfer: d = -0.16). Possible explanations of this effect are discussed in terms of cognitive load theory and cognitive-affective theory of learning from media.