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This article offers insights into assessing the effectiveness of post farm-gate agri-food value chains at improving the nutrition intake of vulnerable groups. It develops a conceptual framework integrating the value chain concepts with agriculture and nutrition, and identifies key outcomes and requirements for value chains to be successful at delivering substantive and sustained consumption of nutrient-dense foods by poor households. Other frameworks linking value chains with nutrition have been published, but this article provides the analytical lens to assess post-farm-gate value chains. To achieve improvements in the intake of nutritious foods by the target populations food must be: safe to eat on a sustained basis; nutrient dense at the point of consumption; and consumed in adequate amounts on a sustained basis. This shifts the focus to the role of public actions and policy in terms of shaping the functioning of food value chains. By assessing the limits of what business can and cannot contribute in a given market context, policy-makers and other relevant stakeholders will be more capable of creating an appropriate institutional environment that shapes how value chains operate for the benefit of vulnerable target groups, designing and implementing effective policies and strategies with respect to the role and use of market-based interventions.

Summary Despite interest in public support for aid to developing countries, there has been limited academic research. This paper reports analysis of survey data for the United Kingdom that explores the factors driving support for cuts in aid spending as a case example. Dominant factors are found to be beliefs in the moral imperative to help reduce poverty in developing countries versus the prioritization of efforts to tackle poverty in the United Kingdom. Most socio-demographic factors are insignificant. The results highlight the need to examine support for aid in the context of government spending more generally.

This study explores the factors associated with Canadian consumers locally produced food purchase intention. Data from an Internet-based survey of consumers (n = 1,139) was analyzed using a bivariate probit model. The bivariate probit model related attitudinal, behavioral and sociodemographic factors to the intention to purchase fresh and nonfresh locally produced foods. Although sociodemographic characteristics play a limited role in shaping local food purchase intentions, attitudinally based variables have far greater influence. Positive views towards local farmers and agriculture in general, as well as food quality, are positively related to purchase intention. The importance placed on brand-specific quality is inversely related to the intention to buy local food. Consumers with heightened levels of food involvement, either growing food or preparing most meals from scratch, are more likely to purchase local foods. (EconLit Citations: L660; Q130; Q180)

This study considers the factors that explain the consumption of food and beverages with functional ingredients to avert or offset health problems. We use an instrumental variables Poisson regression model to deal with the endogeneity of perceived health status in functional ingredient use. The first stage results indicate that perceived health status is associated with attitude towards functional foods, food consumption motives and information seeking and being female. The second stage results suggest that individuals who consume more functional ingredients tend to have a positive attitude towards functional foods, are novelty-seeking, female and older. As expected, consumption of functional ingredients is more likely when consumers’ self-reports indicate that they are aware of functional foods’ nutritional value and the link with their own health. Consistent with previous research, most of the socio-demographics are poor predictors of functional ingredient consumption.

Summary This paper presents analysis of a survey of fresh produce export firms in 10 countries of sub-Saharan Africa, focusing on the determinants of GlobalGAP certification and the returns in terms of expansion of export sales revenue. The results suggest that technical and/or financial assistance and being in an established export country are key discriminating factors for being GlobalGAP certified. Using propensity matching, it is shown that firms that have achieved certification have appreciable higher export revenues, suggesting an appreciable return on the required investments.

In this article, the authors use conjoint analysis to elicit the views of coffee consumers on the attributes of Fair Trade coffee using data from the Greater Toronto Area and Vancouver collected through face-to-face interviews with consumers. The impact of socioeconomic and demographic factors on respondents’ acceptance of Fair Trade coffee is evaluated using cluster analysis and multinomial logit models. The results suggest that, regardless of location, consumers place a strong premium on price and labeling claims. Three consumer segments are identified in each city; in Toronto, these segments are labeled Fair Trade-Focused, Price Conscious, and Balanced Buyers; for Vancouver these segments are labeled Organic and Fair Trade-Focused, Price Conscious, and Balanced Buyers. Although a broad spectrum of variables influences segment membership, no single variable explains membership in the same segment in each city. Such a result is rather telling; it suggests deeper constructs underlie segment membership, and presumably consumption behavior with respect to Fair Trade coffee. [EconLit citations: D120, Q130]. r 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

This study explores the barriers that impede the adoption of hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) by food processing firms in Ontario, Canada. The study identifies four broad groupings of barriers to HACCP implementation, namely perceptions that HACCP is of “questionable appropriateness” to the firm, the scale of change required to achieve implementation, low priority given to enhancement of food safety controls, and financial constraints. The severity of these identified barriers differs significantly between firms that have implemented HACCP and those that have not. In particular, HACCP implementation is impeded significantly by barriers related to financial constraints. The most important driver promoting implementation is customer requirements for HACCP to be implemented in supplier facilities. [EconLit citations: D210, L600, L660]. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

We develop and implement two models to show what factors affect a firm's decision to seek external financing and the level of financing obtained in the Canadian functional food and nutraceutical sector. Data from a national survey of functional foods and nutraceutical firms in Canada, conducted by Statistics Canada in 2003, is used for this analysis. Firm size, being privately held and engaging in contractual arrangements have negative impacts on the likelihood of a firm seeking external funding, while firms which are intensively involved in the functional food and nutraceutical sector, with greater prospects for business expansion and/or involved in partnerships are more likely to seek external financing. Larger firms and those involved in functional food and nutraceutical research and development receive a greater amount of capital when they decide to raise capital. However, firms focused on functional foods and nutraceuticals, as opposed to more diversified firms, and those involved in product developm...

There are few studies that consider the localization/relocalization of food systems in low-income countries and how the social, cultural and economic dynamics of these agri-food systems compare to trends observed in high-income countries. We suggest that food systems in Ghana are localized by necessity when compared to relocalized food systems observed in high-income countries that have emerged in response to global agri-food industrialization. Food systems in Ghana are characterized by policies aimed at enhancing food security and poverty alleviation, as well as market imperfections that limit farmers' access to non-local markets. Copyright 2010, Oxford University Press.

Consumer purchase intention with respect to foods and non-prescription pills containing phytosterols was investigated through a mall intercept survey (n = 446) in Ontario, Canada. The study took as its starting point the Protection Motivation Theory (PMT), a social cognition model rooted in research on fear appeal in determining health-protective behaviour. Structural equation modelling was used to explore whether an adaptation of PMT explains intention to purchase products containing phytosterols as a means to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). The standard form of PMT was adapted to take account of consumer perceptions of the risk of elevated blood cholesterol, reflecting the fact that phytosterols do not directly reduce the risk of CVD but rather help in the management of a single risk factor. Overall, coping appraisal had a positive and significant association with purchase intention, while threat appraisal had no significant effect. Incorporation of cholesterol as a risk factor for CVD significantly improved the measurement strength of the threat appraisal construct. However, the overall predictive power of the model did not change appreciably. The results suggest that the promotion of adaptive behaviours, such as consumption of functional foods and nutraceuticals, needs to focus on perception of response and self-efficacy rather than individual perceptions of risk.

This article explores the incidence and intensity of certification of Pakistani exporting firms across a range of quality assurance programs. Using firm-level data, the firm's certification status is modelled using Heckman's two-step procedure. The first-stage results using a probit model show that the likelihood of certification is determined by the sector, the firm's awareness of trade standards, the level to which the firm's markets are diversified, external pressure for certification and the firm's primary export market. The intensity of certification is treated as the number of standards a firm has invested in, which can be seen as ordered into distinct categories, such that an ordered probit model can be applied, correcting for sample selection bias. The results show that the number of standards to which a firm is certified is influenced by firm size, a firm's primary export markets, level of awareness of trade standards and level of market diversification. Overall, the results suggest that certific...

Summary This paper analyzes the effect of firm and other characteristics on the incidence and intensity of improved financial performance among non-farm microenterprises in Ghana, using data from the 1998/1999 Ghana Living Standards Survey (GLSS 4). The results indicate that firm characteristics, including urban and regional location, significantly affect the incidence and intensity of improved performance, but entrepreneurial characteristics are unimportant. The firm’s capital stock does not affect the propensity and intensity of better performance, reflecting that the value of assets owned is low and insufficient to have a measurable impact on enterprise productivity and performance.

The paper explores the use of multi-item summated scales for the measurement of the perceived performance of the food system and of an index to measure consumer food-related welfare. Scales are developed that encompass a range of factors that influence the welfare consumers derive from food, including food safety, convenience, ethical issues, health and nutrition, taste and cost. These scales are applied to a national sample of food consumers in the United States and the United Kingdom. On the basis of the survey results, there is evidence that the scales are both reliable and valid measures of the perceived performance of the food system in both countries. An index of consumer food-related welfare is developed that weights the various performance measures according to respondents' measure of importance. Survey respondents judge that the food system is not performing particularly well in either country. Although more work is required on the use of summated multi-item scales for this purpose, the results suggest that this is a potentially useful approach that provides relevant information on the impact of different elements of the food system on consumer welfare.

The paper employs structural equation modelling to explore the process by which consumers assess the safety of beef at the point of purchase. The data employed in the analysis are collected through a telephone survey in six European Union member states. The results indicate differences in the process by which the safety of beef is assessed by consumers between the study countries. The implications of the results for policy within the European Union are discussed.

Factors influencing the development and commercialization of functional food and nutraceutical (FFN) products are explored. Count data models are developed to relate firm, market, and regulatory covariates to the number of FFN product lines firms have under development, on the market, and in total. Canadian firm-level innovation data were taken from Statistics Canada (2003) Functional Food and Nutraceutical Survey. Firms involved in product development/scale-up had more product lines in total and on the market. Firms with a strong and positive perception of the impact of regulatory reform related to generic health claims and harmonization of Canadian regulations with U.S. regulations had fewer product lines in total and on the market. Firms with more positive perceptions of the business impact of structure and function health claims had more product lines on the market. One implication of the study is the importance of developing policies and reforming regulations which better enable use of generic health claims on FFN products. Further, policies which better enable or foster development/scale-up of product lines would increase the Canadian FFN sector's ability to develop new products. [EconLit: O130, L500, Q180]. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

This study explores the association between the adoption of food safety and quality assurance practices in the Canadian food processing sector and firm characteristics. A conceptual model is developed recognizing that the relative importance of a firm's incentives to adopt enhanced food safety and quality assurance practices is influenced by the firm's characteristics and activities. Binomial logit models are estimated to explore the association between adoption of various combinations of food safety and quality assurance practices including hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP). The findings show that the adoption of food safety and quality practices varies widely between individual firms according to, among others, firm size, country of ownership and control, level of innovativeness, level of export orientation, forms of food safety inspection, and the subsector in which the firm operates. Incentives of being able to access foreign markets play an important role in influencing HACCP adoption. La presente etude analyse le lien entre l'adoption de pratiques visant la salubrite et l'assurance de la qualite des aliments au sein de l'industrie canadienne de la transformation et les caracteristiques des entreprises. Nous avons elabore un modele conceptuel reconnaissant que l'importance relative des incitatifs qui motivent une entreprise a adopter des pratiques ameliorees en matiere de salubrite et d'assurance de la qualite des aliments est influencee par les caracteristiques et les activites de l'entreprise. Nous avons estime des modeles logit binomiaux pour examiner le lien entre l'adoption de diverses combinaisons de pratiques visant la salubrite et l'assurance de la qualite des aliments, y compris les systemes HACCP (analyse des risques et maitrise des points critiques). Les resultats ont montre que l'adoption de ces pratiques variait considerablement d'une entreprise a l'autre en fonction, entre autres, de la taille de l'entreprise, du pays de propriete et de controle, du degre d'innovation, du degre de vocation exportatrice, des programmes d'inspection de la salubrite des aliments et du sous-secteur dans lequel une entreprise evolue. La perspective de penetrer les marches etrangers joue un role important dans l'adoption de systemes HACCP.

Public concern about food safety is placing increasing pressure on government agencies to be more prescriptive and proactive in their regulation of the food industry. However, given the scarcity of public sector resources, concerns about the impact of regulation on competitiveness and the scale of the task at hand, there is growing interest in co-regulation, with public and private sectors working hand-in-hand to deliver safer food at lower (regulatory) cost. This paper explores the scope for the co-regulation of food safety in the UK and North America, where there are distinct differences in the established regulatory processes. The authors conclude that opportunities clearly exist, to varying degrees in the different countries analysed, but that considerable obstacles remain to the widespread adoption of co-regulatory practices in the area of food safety.

Supermarkets have spread extremely rapidly in developing countries after the ‘take-off’ in the early to mid-1990s. Former analyses of supermarket diffusion have not adequately explained the sudden burst and then exponential diffusion of supermarkets in the late 1990s and early 2000s. We argue that rather than taking demand and market institutional and organizational conditions as ‘exogenous’, as former analyses have tended to do, modern food retailers instead have treated local conditions as substantially ‘endogenous’. To enable their rapid growth, supermarkets undertake ‘proactive fast-tracking strategies’ to alter the ‘enabling conditions’ of entry and growth. Beside the retail investments that have been extensively treated in recent literature, these proactive strategies focus on improving the ‘enabling conditions’ via (i) procurement system modernization and (ii) local supply chain development. One important strategy retailers have used to facilitate (i) and (ii) is to form symbiotic relationships with modern wholesale, logistics and processing firms. An example we address is ‘follow sourcing’, where a transnational retailer encourages transnational logistics and wholesale firms with whom the retailer is working in home markets, to locate to the developing country. This is a spur to globalization of services in support of retail. Follow-sourcing has been treated for example in the automobile manufactures sector (follow-sourcing from spare parts manufacturers)—but not in the food sector. A second important strategy is that of multi-network-sourcing, in which supermarkets source from national, regional and global networks. We analyze that strategy here, adding to the literature which to date has touched on this theme only scantly, and for the first time identify typical paths, present preliminary evidence (from Central America and Indonesia) concerning this multi-sourcing-network strategy and discuss trade implications. One of these is the move to primacy of South–South trade in supermarket sourcing—a new dimension of globalization. By introducing this link of retailer transformation and trade into the literature, we hope to spur a new line of research that is timely in light of the trade, development and globalization debates in developing countries.

This study assesses quantitatively the economic incentives for firms to adopt food safety controls and the potential impact of a number of firm- and market-specific characteristics on this behavior, focusing on the red meat and poultry processing sector in Canada. The results suggest that market-based (private) incentives have a greater impact on the food safety responsiveness of firms in this sector than government regulatory actions. This creates challenges for regulators in defining policy instruments that promote greater levels of food safety control in food processing sectors rather than constraining firms from taking initiatives that exceed regulatory requirements. Copyright 2006, Oxford University Press.

The likelihood of the voluntary adoption of hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) among food processing firms is evaluated by exploring the perceptions of food safety managers with respect to a range of possible motivating factors including the exogenous pressure to adopt HACCP, efficacy of existing food safety controls, perception that HACCP will improve the firm's food safety controls, relative costs and benefits of HACCP implementation, impact of HACCP on business performance, and the nature of barriers to implementing HACCP. While market-based factors exert substantial pressure on firms to adopt HACCP, many food safety managers perceive that their existing food safety controls are adequate to meet existing food safety demands. While good manufacturing practice (GMP) and traceability are considered the most efficacious food safety controls, HACCP is most often perceived to provide intangible and “incidental” benefits that are often not recognized by food safety managers a priori. An important barrier to the voluntary adoption of HACCP is the perceived questionable appropriateness of HACCP for enhancing food safety controls, while financial constraints can be an absolute barrier to implementation. The results suggest a number of potential strategies through which the implementation of HACCP might be facilitated and enhanced through cooperation and coordination between regulators and industry organizations. La probabilite que les entreprises de transformation des aliments adoptent volontairement le systeme HACCP (analyse des risques et maitrise des points critiques) a eteevaluee en examinant les perceptions des gestionnaires de securite alimentaire envers certains facteurs de motivation possibles tels que la pression exogene, l'efficacite des moyens de controle existants, la perception voulant que le systeme HACCP ameliore le controle de la securite alimentaire de l'entreprise, les couts et les avantages relatifs de la mise en place du systeme, les repercussions du systeme sur la performance de l'entreprise et la nature des obstacles a la mise en place du systeme. Bien que des facteurs de marche exercent d'importantes pressions pour que les entreprises adoptent ce systeme, de nombreux gestionnaires de securite alimentaire estiment que leurs moyens de controle existants repondent adequatement aux demandes actuelles de securite alimentaire. Bien que les bonnes pratiques de fabrication (BPF) et la tracabilite soient considerees comme les moyens de controle de la securite alimentaire les plus efficaces, le systeme HACCP est le plus souvent percu comme procurant des avantages intangibles et ≪accessoires≫ qui, souvent, ne sont pas reconnus a priori par les gestionnaires de securite alimentaire. La pertinence discutable percue du systeme HACCP comme moyen d'ameliorer le controle de la securite alimentaire constitue un important obstacle a l'adoption volontaire du systeme, bien que les contraintes financieres peuvent etre un obstacle absolu a sa mise en place. Les resultats suggerent un certain nombre de strategies potentielles grâce auxquelles la mise en place du systeme pourrait etre facilitee et amelioree par la collaboration et la coordination entre les organismes de reglementation et les entreprises de l'industrie de la transformation des aliments.

Summary. — This article explores the motivations behind the decision of small-scale producers to grow nontraditional vegetables under contract for export. Based on a survey of small-scale producers in Zimbabwe, four factors are identified as motivating contracting, namely, market uncertainty, indirect benefits (e.g., knowledge acquisition), income benefits, and intangible benefits. Respondents are clustered according to the relative importance of these factors in their contracting decision. Four clusters are identified and related to the characteristics of these farmers including size of the farm, amount of land devoted to export crops, access to alternative markets, and the proportion of family income derived from export crops. The results suggest that there are systematic differences between farmers in their decisions to contract which needs to be recognized in contract design and management. 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

There is evidence that the challenges of complying with stricter food safety and quality standards are acting to exclude small-scale producers from export supply chains for high-value agricultural products. The case of Hortico Agrisystems illustrates the considerable challenges and costs faced by supermarket suppliers in sourcing from a broad base of small-scale producers in the context of evolving food safety and quality standards. While small-scale producers are able to achieve levels of compliance at least equal to those of large-scale producers, multi-tiered and dynamic systems of control are required to maintain control. These need to include measures that facilitate compliance, incentives to reward good performance and penalties to punish non-compliance. In establishing a sustainable supply system in this context, both exporters and small-scale producers face a steep learning curve in adjusting to new requirements, further emphasising the need for supply chains to be responsive to change.

This paper provides a brief introduction to the evolution and nature of private food safety and quality standards, highlighting the resultant impacts on the structure and modus operandi of supply chains for agricultural and food products and the challenges posed for processes of agricultural development. It serves as an introduction to a series of papers that provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge regarding private food safety and quality standards in both an industrialised and developing country context. In so doing, it aims to provide a catalyst for further research on this rapidly evolving field of inquiry.

This study investigates the role of risk tolerance in shaping Canadian consumers' willingness-to-pay for food safety risk reductions. Non-hypothetical experimental auctions were used to elicit consumer valuations of food safety improvement. To identify the relationship between food safety concern and risk-reduction valuations, individual risk-perception scores are constructed based on questionnaire responses. Results show willingness-to-pay for improved food safety tends to decrease as individuals become more risk tolerant. Differences in bids across naive and informed rounds of bidding tend to become smaller with risk tolerance for individuals who initially overestimated the food safety risk. La presente etude a examine le role que joue la tolerance a l'egard du risque dans la volonte de payer des consommateurs canadiens pour diminuer les risques concernant la securite alimentaire. Nous avons organise des encheres experimentales non hypothetiques pour obtenir l'evaluation des consommateurs concernant l'amelioration de la securite alimentaire. Pour determiner le lien entre l'inquietude concernant la securite alimentaire et l'evaluation de la diminution du risque, nous avons utilise les scores individuels sur la perception du risque calcules a partir d'un questionnaire. Les resultats ont montre que la volonte de payer pour obtenir une securite alimentaire accrue tend a diminuer a mesure que les consommateurs deviennent plus tolerants a l'egard du risque. Les differences d'offres des encheres naives et informees tendaient a diminuer avec la tolerance a l'egard du risque pour les individus qui, au depart, avaient surestime le risque liea la securite alimentaire.

The impact of supermarkets on small producers in developing countries has received much attention in recent years, predominantly focusing on global commodity chains for nontraditional agricultural products to industrialized country markets (see, e.g., Dolan, Humphrey, and Harris-Pascal; Dolan and Humphrey). More recently, attention has been focused on the evolution of supermarkets within developing countries, in particular Latin America (see, e.g., Reardon and Berdegue; Weatherspoon and Reardon). Experience in both contexts suggests that the increasing demand for high-value fresh produce can provide new opportunities for enhanced small producer livelihoods. However, the standards (including food safety and quality requirements) and supply reliability demanded by supermarkets, raise challenges for small producers. Indeed, there is evidence that supermarket buyers in both industrialized and developing countries are increasingly sourcing from large commercial growers. Significant benefits can be derived by both buyers and sellers from long-term partnerships along supply chains, particularly in satisfying nonprice demands (Perosio et al.). Fearne and Hughes suggest that effective communication between and within stakeholders is

This paper explores the impact of sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures in developed countries on developing country exports of agricultural and food products. It identifies the problems that developing countries face in meeting SPS requirements and how these relate to the nature of SPS measures and the compliance resources available to government and the supply chain. The paper examines the impact of the WTO's SPS Agreement on the extent to which SPS measures impede exports from developing countries. It identifies the problems that limit the participation of developing countries in the SPS Agreement and their concerns about the way in which it currently operates.

This article explores the incentives that motivate the adoption of food safety controls by businesses through a study of HACCP adoption in the U.K. dairy processing sector. The study identifies four key factors that have motivated the adoption of HACCP, namely, internal efficiency, commercial pressure, external requirements, and good practice. Respondents to the survey are clustered according to the relative importance of these factors in their adoption decision. Four clusters are identified and related to the characteristics of firms, including firm size and type of products manufactured. The results indicate that there are systematic differences in the HACCP adoption process between individual firms.

This article discusses a number of issues that are influencing the evolution of food safety regulation in developed and, to a lesser extent, developing countries. Whilst not definitive, it aims to highlight those factors which are considered crucial to an understanding of contemporary food safety controls in both the public and private spheres. These issues include criteria applied to assess the need/justification for food safety regulation, relationships between public and private food safety control systems, alternative forms that public food safety regulation can take, strategic responses to food safety regulation, and the trade implications of national food safety controls. The article serves as an introduction to these issues, which are discussed at greater length in the other papers that make up this special issue of Food Policy .

This article addresses the role and impact of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) Agreement on prospects for export trade by developing countries. The SPS Agreement aims to facilitate discussion under the aegis of the World Trade Organization (WTP). It provides an enquiry and dispute settlement procedure; it also offers certain concessions and aid to developing and least developed countries. The article presents data on participation and several objective measures of the way the Agreement works for developing countries. Participation in the Agreement by developing countries is relatively low, despite the fact that several current issues (for example aflatoxins, salmonella) impact directly on such countries. The article suggests ways that developing countries can benefit further from the operation of the SPS Agreement, and explores how the standards operated by certain countries might act as a trade barrier to exports from developing countries. [Econ-Lit citations: L660, F100, Q170] © 1999 John Wiley & Sons.

Whilst major multiple food retailers in the UK have gained commercial advantage from increased sales of own-branded food products, this trend has exposed them to greater risks of product failure. In a bid to manage these risks, multiple food retailers have implemented complex and very costly food safety control systems in the procurement of own-branded products. Using a transaction costs framework, the paper suggests that multiple food retailers have encouraged the development of third party agencies as institutions through which the costs associated with food safety controls can be reduced, whilst maintaining an acceptable risk of product failure. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

An understanding of the process by which businesses comply with legal requirements is an essential, although frequently ignored, aspect of food safety regulation. The process of compliance is investigated through a postal survey and in-depth interviews with technical directors in a cross-section of food manufacturers and retailers in the UK. Although there are differences in the specific manner in which individual businesses comply with food safety regulations, it is evident that firms follow a common sequence of activities when deciding whether to comply with a new regulation, the stage at which compliance is implemented, and the specific changes made in order to achieve compliance. It is argued that the promulgation of efficient and effective food safety regulations requires an understanding of the compliance process.

The paper employs contingent valuation to estimate “willingness to pay” for reductions in the risk of food poisoning. The analysis accounts for the range of adverse health effects resulting from nonfatal cases of food poisoning as well as the risk of loss of life. A number of hypotheses regarding the value consumers attach to improvements in food safety are explored based on the results from a contingent valuation survey. Regression analysis is used to assess the factors influencing expressed “willingness to pay” for safer food, including demographic factors, personal experience of food poisoning and beliefs and attitudes about food-borne risk.

The paper explores the factors influencing consumer acceptance of new food technologies through an in-depth analysis of consumer reactions to food irradiation. Consumer acceptance/rejection of innovative food technologies is the result of a complex decisionmaking process which involves an assessment of the perceived risks and benefits associated with the new technology and existing alternatives. The acceptance of a new food technology is not simply related to the basic characteristics of the process itself but also the individual food consumer and the economic, political and social environment in which food choices take place. Consequently, it is difficult to make generalisations about consumer acceptance/rejection of particular food technologies. Therefore, strategies aimed at improving the rate at which such technologies are adopted must address a wide range of issues related to the technology itself and the food system into which it is introduced.

The traditional approach to the analysis of food policy treats government as an impartial 'clearing house,' balancing the needs of different groups and correcting for market failures. Recent writings on political economy, particularly relating to agriculture, argue that policy making should be treated as an endogenous component of the food system which depends on the nature of the political institutions and the policy-making process and on interest groups and their relative strengths. In this paper these ideas are discussed in relation to food policy generally and, in particular, to three specific examples: food safety; food research and development (RD and food labeling. The preliminary analysis presented in this paper supports the view that this is a fruitful area for further investigation. Copyright 1995 by Oxford University Press.

As a result of the political upheaval and change of regime in Poland in 1989, a radical economic transformation programme was implemented. This was designed to remove state controls which had dominated all aspects of economic life for over 40 years and lay the foundations for the evolution of a market economy. It involved the simultaneous liberalization of prices and the restructuring of all aspects of the macro- and micro-economy. The food sector, given existing levels of state control and the importance of the production and consumption of food to the national economy, was among the first to receive attention. State controls of food prices and subsidies were removed and a long process by which state-owned monopoly suppliers were broken-up was established, in an attempt to establish a properly functioning market for food. As a result of price liberalization and the removal of subsidies, food prices soared and, combined with restrictions on increases in money wages, real incomes declined. In addition, there was a realignment of relative food prices. Despite initial attempts at maintaining existing consumption patterns, the demand for most food products declined. Consequently, there were reductions in intakes of food energy and the majority of nutrients. In the longer term, producers and consumers will adapt to their new economic environment and as properly functioning markets become established and real incomes grow, intakes of food will recover and patterns of consumption are likely to converged upon those observed in much of the rest of Northern Europe.

This article reviews and comments upon a number of models of consumer choice of foods and diets with different real or perceived risks and benefits associated with them. The article proceeds to discuss the imperfections and externalities in the market which result in a market solution which may provide too much or (more typically) too little food safety for individual consumers and for society. The likely societal magnitudes of some of the costs of food-borne ill-health are also discussed. The case for government intervention is quite clear, but care must be taken not to impose too high a level of food safety.

Considering the dynamic changes in agrifood systems in developing countries, this study uses a stated choice model to explore the marketing preferences of small-scale producers of fresh fruits and vegetables in Honduras. Eight attributes, proposed in hypothetical contracts to farmers, are evaluated. The results suggest that farmers have strong marketing preferences associated with new supply chains, such as prearranging prices and quantities with buyers, but have remaining preferences for some attributes of traditional spot markets, such as the lack of grading produce, receiving cash payments, lack of delivery schedules, ability to sell at the farm gate, and ability to sell individually. Further, farmers prefer market channels that do not require major upfront investments. The results suggest that the traditional marketing preferences of farmers could impede participation of small-holders in emerging supply chains and take advantage of the potential opportunities that new agrifood supply chains can offer. [JEL Code: Q13 O14]. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

This paper explores the competing concepts of ‘standards as barriers’ and ‘standards as catalysts’ in the context of food safety standards in international trade in agricultural and food products. Through a review of existing evidence of the impact of food safety standards on developing country exports of agricultural and food products and the results of a series of country- and product-specific case studies, it is suggested that food safety standards can act as both a barrier to trade and the basis of competitive positioning for developing countries in international markets. This suggests that broad conclusions about the trade effects of food safety standards on developing countries are problematic, rather the level and ways in which agricultural and food exports are impacted can be product, country, standard and even firm-specific.

The paper develops a measure of consumer welfare losses associated with withholding it formation about a possible link between BSE and vCJD. The Cost of Ignorance (COI) is measured by comparing the utility of the informed choice with the utility of the uninformed choice, under conditions of improved information. Unlike previous work that is largely based on a single equation demand model, the measure is obtained retrieving a cost,function from a dynamic Almost Ideal Demand System. The estimated perceived loss for Italian consumers due to delayed information ranges from 12 percent to 54 percent of total meat expenditure, depending on the month assumed to embody correct beliefs about the safety level of beef.