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In a world of having large part suffering from the inadequacies of basic needs and inter-class and inter-regional income disparities, investing upon the development of different social sectors from the state exchequers have been one of the top agendas of the policymakers. It is not a different issue for the states and provinces of the developing countries like India. Besides having positive roles on economic betterment, spending on social expenditures sometimes work in favour of the ruling political parties to gain confidence from the voters. The states thus compete in this area. Under this background, the present study attempts to examine whether the states of India are converging in social sector’s expenditure for the period 1980–81 to 2017–18. Applying the neoclassical growth and panel unit roots models the study observes unambiguously that there are absolute and conditional β convergence and σ convergence in per capita social expenditure among the states. JEL Classification: H72, O470, C23, O530

Political parties aim at getting re-elected and their actions are often in conflict with the economic and welfare objectives of the government. In this context, the paper endeavours to study the ec...

Author proposed and argued conception of financialization of education, typical for the modern stage of late capitalism, and shows its essence – subordination of the education to the financial capital; and its actors. The influence of the process of financialization of education on society and on the individual is shown. The author proves that financial capital subordinating the content, goals and values of education creates a social atmosphere in which education becomes a conductor for the financing of society. Thus, financial capital forms social stereotypes of behavior of the main social groups and leads to the formation of a new social type of person – homo finansus. This strengthens and accelerates the financialization of the economy and society as a whole. Specific features of financialization of education in comparison with other spheres of social sector and common features of education and other spheres are shown.

Spending upon different social sectors from the government’s exchequer has been one of the priority agendas of any country or province since it affects growth and human development. In this junctur...

El objetivo de la presente investigación fue analizar el impacto del gasto en inversión pública sobre la reducción de la pobreza monetaria en el Perú para el periodo 2000-2018, la investigación es cuantitativa, de tipo descriptiva y explicativo, de diseño correlacional y de corte longitudinal, para cuantificar los efectos de la inversión pública sobre la pobreza se utilizó información secundaria de fuentes como las series de tiempo del Banco Central de Reserva del Perú y estadísticas del Banco de Proyectos del Ministerio de Economía y Finanzas y del Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, los resultados indican que el gasto público en inversión y los niveles de pobreza poseen una relación inversa tanto a nivel total como a nivel de los sectores que conforman la inversión pública ejecutada, se concluye que la gestión de la inversión pública logro reducir la pobreza monetaria en el Perú a lo largo de periodo de estudio, siendo solo la inversión en el sector social la que ha tenido una participación significativa en la reducción de la pobreza.

It is proposed to substantiate the directions of state regulation of the social sector of the national economy using a methodological approach to assess the level of development of the social sector of the national economy, which provides on the basis of an integrated assessment (which combines the national and regional level, includes the following components: income / expenditure, demography, macroeconomics employment) to determine the level of development of the social sector of the national economy with the subsequent identification of the problem field by specific composition ymi. The sequence of assessment of the level of development of the social sector of the national economy includes the following stages: formation of components and systems of indicators for assessing the level of development of the social sector of the national economy; an integrated assessment of the level of social sector development at regional and national levels; identification of the problematic field of state regulation of the social sector of the country. Keywords: state regulation, social sector, national economy, integral indicator.

Introduction. The development of the national economy under the modern conditions is increasingly determined by the potential both of the commercial sector and also of the social sector development level since a number of economic policy tasks concern this sector. Issues of economic and social inequality are increasingly being explored in terms of their impact on economic growth in a long run. The complexity of implementing state regulation of the social sector to ensure inclusive growth raises a number of problems, because policies need to be coherent and institutional arrangements are effectively implemented. Aim and tasks. The purpose of the study is to substantiate a conceptual approach to institutional transformations regulating of the social sector of the national economy, based on the principles of inclusive economic growth. Results. According to the institutional changes theory, the formation of a coherent strategy regarding the state regulation of institutional changes in the social sector of the national economy requires consideration of the dependence on the previous way of development. So, the structure that is being formed requires both vertical (with basic institutions) and horizontal (with institutions formed within the social sector) coordination. Development of two mentioned types of interactions should be aligned with the strategy of state regulation of the social sector of the national economy - market-coherent and socially-coherent and gives the opportunity to achieve both social and economic (commercial) results, to balance the measures aimed at these interactions. Conclusions. Within the framework of the problem of creation of an effective system of state regulation solution for ensuring inclusive growth within the proposed approach, the necessity of stakeholder interaction development, creation of an institutional and economic environment for the development of market-coherent and socially-coherent interactions considering achievement of economic growth with simultaneous achievement of social goals is ensured. Strategic direction of state regulation of institutional changes in the social sector of the national economy can be considered a gradual shift from the institutions of income redistribution to participation institutions (education, infrastructure, etc.). Education development is one of the priorities, as research findings indicate that the problem of access to education is a significant factor in inequality.

The main purpose of this study is examines the long run relationship between social expenditures and economic growth in North-Eastern states of India. The long run impact of expenditures in social sector such as education, health and social welfare on economic growth is investigated by applying the Pedroni’s panel Cointegration using balanced panel data analysis of eight (8) North Eastern states over the period from 2000 to 2014. In this study empirical analysis suggest the existence of dynamic relationship among expenditures on education, health and social welfare and economic growth for all cases of eight sample states. The study concludes that expenditures in the social sector can affect economic growth. Such social expenditures enhance productivity by providing infrastructure, education, health and harmonizing social interests. Thus, expenditure composition can also play an important role in promoting economic growth in North-Eastern region.

The article provides theoretical underpinning for the need to assess institutional quality of the social sector. Basing on the critical analysis of the existing approaches to index construction, traditionally used to study economic development and quality of life, it is proposed to form the index of social sector quality, and also the principles of its calculation are justified. The presented methodology for calculating this index is built upon the principal component analysis. The calculation includes 20 indicators, which represent three groups (education, healthcare and social security). The index creation is based on the data for 25 countries divided into four groups. According to our evaluation findings, the quality of social institutions will be primarily determined by their ability to provide an extension of average life expectancy and to maintain an adequate level of health, as well as employment according to the results of education. The quality of social security institutions’ operations affects the index variability to the least extent.

This paper summarizes the arguments and counterarguments within the scientific discussion on the issue of the institutional quality of the social sector, its measurement, and the impact of institutional transformations on the creation of positive social results.

A vast range of issues has been debated and discussed in India in the context of the social sector during the last decade, including the right to education, land rights, food security, health for all, gender equality, women’s empowerment, livelihood and employment guarantee. Successive governments have also tried to promote the idea of sustainable and equitable economic growth and development but the reality is that high levels of both economic and social disparities continue to exist. Contemporary political discourse contains recurring references to increasing inequality in society in both developed and developing nations. Against this background the international community, in line with the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), developed a new template of sustainable development goals (SDGs)—17 goals and 169 strategies for the implementation of a global development agenda. However, in a country as diverse as India, equitable development can be brought about only through the implementation of broad-based inclusive social policies backed by an adequate reservoir of financial resources. It was felt that the character and contour of such an approach for development thus needed debate and discussion and it was in this context that a two-day national seminar, Indian Perspectives on Social Sector Issues and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): Policies, Prospects and Future Directions, was organised by the Council for Social Development to arrive at a consensus on social development.

Objective to identify the features in distribution of residual property rights in the social sector of the economy by the example of higher education. Methods literature analysis methods and models of new institutional economic theory primarily contract theory. Results the existing models of social sector management are reviewed. The strategies of employeesrsquo behavior set by these models are shown. On this basis various options for the distribution of residual property rights in the higher education management system are analyzed. It is shown that even with the dominant role of the state a part of these rights can be delegated to other subjects ndash the professional community or consumers of educational services. It is concluded that the reforms currently implemented in Russia contribute to the consolidation of residual rights in the Ministry of Science and Higher Education with the possibility of their partial subsequent transfer to employers. Scientific novelty models of the social sector management are considered from the viewpoint of distribution of residual property rights which allows in each case to allocate subjects that can influence the process of producing socially significant goods. Practical significance the results obtained can be used in assessing the effectiveness of the state policy in the field of education.

Today the prevention of global challenges (from global security to the problems of poverty) relates to the institutional quality. Nowadays, the social standards or other “social rules” make the part of the market system, since they are built into the country’s institutional structure. Neither social nor economic reforms can be implemented without the support through institutional mechanisms. The purpose of this paper is to explore the relationship between social sector institutions and basic institutions, taking into account the economic development of countries and the way in which they are formed. A number of empiric studies confirmed significant role of institutions to provide conditions for economic development. In order to define and assess the link between the basic institutions and the social sector institutions, we formed panel data that includes 20 countries for the period from 2007-2014. We assessed quality of the basic institutions using The Worldwide Governance Indicators (WGI). WGI methodology provides an evaluation of six dimensions of the institutional quality that enables to define the connection and the impact of every dimension on the institutional quality of the social sector. The model additionally evaluates the impact of the incomes distribution inequality, general economic welfare on the institutional quality of the social sector. Among all dimensions of governance “Rule of Law” and “Regulatory Quality” the statistically significant direct impact on the institutional quality of the social sector has been revealed. It confirms the complementarity of basic institutions and institutions of the social sector. © 2019 The Authors. Published by VGTU Press.

Regional inequality, in terms of cross-district variations, has attracted the attention of researchers and policy-makers alke, helping them to understand horizontal differences and provide alternatives in removing disparities. Several studies have indicated that such variations are an important reason behind the ethnic and political strife found in such regions—a problem that gets accentuated when these areas are dominated by the tribal and are simultaneously underdeveloped. Apart from historical and social factors and the endowment of natural resources, government policies and programmes have also contributed in creating unequal levels and trends in the socio-economic development of a region. Arunachal Pradesh, one of the least studied states in India and located in the north eastern part of the country, is in a transitional phase of its socio-economic development and has shown variations in the levels of development across districts. Given the quality of social capital available in the state, it seems that development is required not only to increase an adequate resource flow, but also to create an enabling environment to attract people towards realising the importance of social capital. For such an understanding, a mapping of cross-district variations in the development of the social sector in Arunachal Pradesh is vital. This study tries to assess the disparity in the social sector across Arunachal Pradesh’s districts by using the principal component analysis (PCA) method to rank districts. On the basis of ranks, the study attempts to analyse reasons behind the levels of disparity. In conclusion, on finding conceptual problems in traditional indicators of social sector development, some alternatives have been outlined.

This research investigates the Economic Crisis Of Pakistan And Its Impact On Economy Of Pakistan . Data were collected from various secondary sources, and data were analyzed by using SPSS-21 software. It was revealed that Pakistan is one of those developing countries which are facing through the economic problems which are hindering the success and the growth of the country. There are so many economic problems in Pakistan which are getting threatening and devastating day by day and if they are remained unattended than the conditions might even get to worse. Data were collected from various secondary sources. It was revealed Corruption is the prime reason behind the economical unstableness, Corruption has spread into the world and has ruined the economy. It is found in government as well as private sector also. Due to corruption, illiterate and dishonest workers come forward and cause industrial backwardness. Poor Social Sector Including Health, Safe Drinking Water, Sanitation etc.

India's unorganized labour force contributes about one third of the total labour sector. The scenario is even worse in the Indian automotive industry which employs a little over 7% on a permanent basis. Problems get exaggerated due to the outdated labour laws, ironically established to support and protect workers. The disappointing areas in the labour contract act and labour laws have led to unfair wage practices and a hostile work environment, giving way to labour discord. This research paper discusses the key issues of labour dissonance in the Indian automobile industry using a Bayesian network analysis. Real-life case-study examples from the Indian automobile industry were considered to identify the rationale behind labour unrest. Bayesian analysis of a set of 250 responses helped us to understand the associations among key attributes of labour dissatisfaction.

This paper analyses the distribution of total aid and aid to the social sectors between 2009 and 2011. Its key findings are four-fold. First, despite the stated objectives of donors, total aid disbursements are broadly neutral, favouring neither the most deprived nor relatively well-off countries. Second, the pattern of social sector aid disbursements follows those for total aid. Third, the aid allocation patterns of bilateral and multilateral donors differ, with multilateral donors generally being more focused on the poorest countries. Finally, the distribution of aid for health and population is more progressive than that for education or other social sectors.

Summary We hypothesize that selective donors will use types of aid over which they have more control when providing assistance to poorly governed countries. We use an original classification of project purpose codes in the AidData dataset to categorize aid flows from the period 2004 to 2010. Results from fixed effect and compositional data models provide evidence of selectivity in terms of overall aid flows, a tradeoff between technical assistance and programmatic lending, and a tradeoff between social sector and infrastructure projects.

South-South Cooperation is a broad framework for collaboration among countries of the South in the political, economic, social, cultural, environmental and technical domains. Involving two or more developing countries, it can take place on a bilateral, regional, sub-regional or interregional basis. Developing countries share knowledge, skills, expertise and resources to meet their development goals through concerted efforts. Looking at the past two decades there has been a surge in South-South economic cooperation– including trade, investment, development assistance and other financial flows. Furthermore, China, India and Brazil are also increasingly active as so-called ‘emerging donors’, both in Africa and in their respective neighbourhood, and the past years have witnessed an unprecedented growth of what can be called ‘South–South aid.’

Although pressures for more efficient and effective government are intense and prescriptions for transformation abound, critical accounts of successful government change initiatives are relatively limited. In this article, we chronicle a transformation of the Indiana Bureau of Motor Vehicles whereby the agency dramatically improved the quality of services while significantly reducing its cost structure—literally moving from worst to first in national rankings of such agencies. We further use this robust case to critically evaluate researcher Jim Collins’ assertions regarding the issues most critical to organizational change and effectiveness in the social sector (vis-a-vis the business sector) and conclude with lessons regarding great management practices for institutions across sectors.

European Union (EU) funding of civil society organizations (CSOs) is a substantial and important part of EU governance, but study of such funding is scarce and theoretically underdeveloped. To fill this gap, this article analyzes the main features of EU funding of CSOs and its effects on the EU system of interest representation, drawing on policy documents and the EU register of interest representatives. The resulting analysis shows that EU funding of CSOs in the social sector tends to reflect many of the characteristics of the model of associative democracy. European funds are being directed to groups that voice the concerns of excluded groups and, in this way, address imbalances in EU interest representation. The EU also promotes certain healthy features among CSOs, since it restricts access to funding opportunities to interest groups fulfilling key normative criteria. Hence, the EU helps sustain, but does not significantly constrain, the development of European CSOs.

This commentary piece seeks to outline the case for a ‘whole place’ approach to progressive economic development. It discusses how Local Enterprise Partnerships can expand their foci and considers the challenge for them of meeting social objectives. Local Enterprise Partnerships are not currently constructing coherent policy approaches to economic growth aspirations and social justice considerations. They offer an opportunity to enhance interplay between and within the commercial, public and social sector functions of the economy. It is through developing networks and relationships that Local Enterprise Partnerships can enhance resilience, and generate synergy to develop innovative solutions to socio-economic challenges. Universities and social enterprises are the exact sorts of organisations which are needed to support Local Enterprise Partnerships to ensure that these networks are given full consideration and representation in the strategic planning of local economies. The role of small-to-medium enterprises in delivering whole place economies is also important, and their views should be feed into strategic decision making at the local level, as arguably they have greater stakes in whole place economies. In conclusion, those Local Enterprise Partnerships who lead the way by embedding the social sector into their working practice will create the most sustainable economic and social benefits.

In the article, theoretical and methodical approaches to human development in Russia and foreign countries are analyzed. The contribution of the various countries to its formation and development is revealed. The indicators showing a level of development of human potential and components forming it in the creation of gross domestic product are analyzed. The alternative options of development of education, health care and science, expenses and benefit from their commercialization are revealed. The role of the state, federal regions and local authorities in management and development of health care, education, science during periods of crises, depressions and increases of economic activity is investigated. The interrelation of levels of development of the economy and human potential, with the levels and the population living conditions are revealed. The reasons of close attention of the governments of the developed countries to human development, and also the measures undertaken on minimization of interregional disproportions in its development become clear. Mechanisms and tools of development of health care, education, science in various regions of the world, a way of use of transfers, subsidies and grants on their development are investigated

This article aims to advance understanding of the dual function of judgment devices (Karpik 2010) in markets. First, these devices support the construction of markets and their segmentation into classes of products, each segment being associated with different procedures for judging the quality or value of goods. Second, they organize classifications and a ranking of the things traded in the same market segment. The fragmentation of markets, understood as the cohabitation of several types of judgment devices, each one associated with different configurations of actors and practices, can then be seen as a welcome source of diversity, preventing the standardizing effects that would result from over-similar judgment devices. This article studies the classification operations that accompany changes in the French market that provides funding for social-sector organizations through financial and banking channels. We observe the arrival on this market of impact investing, the name given since the end of the 2000s to a set of venture capitalism-inspired financing methods that originated in the USA and the UK. We study these classification operations at three levels: the boundary-building work needed to create the idea of a new financing market (the impact investing (II) market), the fragmentation of the existing market for financing social organizations into sub-spaces governed by different assessment and classification regimes, and the effect of these classifications on the organizations being judged.

The low level of residential mobility in England, particularly in the social sector, has been a continuing topic both in the literature and among policy makers. The period 1995–2007 was one of relatively rapid tenure change as well as sustained economic growth which could be expected to have increased mobility across tenures but also the costs of immobility in both the labour and housing markets. It was also a period where allocations to the social sector were increasingly concentrated among more vulnerable households. Given these trends does social housing continue to stand out as particularly immobile? If so is the relative immobility an outcome of who lives in social housing rather than how the sector is managed? And do low levels of mobility have significant negative impacts generating labour market inefficiencies and poor use of social housing? This paper uses Survey of English Housing data for the decade of growth from the mid 1990s to examine the drivers of mobility across tenures and how these have changed over the period, with particular emphasis on outcomes in the social sector. These drivers are described and modelled for the study period and suggest that social sector tenants with similar characteristics are much less mobile than households in other tenures but that the costs of this immobility, while difficult to quantify may well be quite limited.

Welfare reform has become a defining feature of contemporary UK government policy. The impact of welfare reforms varies enormously from place to place and for different types of household. This report quantifies the impact of welfare reforms since 2010. It shows that the reforms have contributed to a widening of the prosperity gap between different regions of the UK, with families and working age adults worst affected, and knock-on effects to local economies. In total, 83 percent of the loss from the post-2015 reforms can be expected to fall on families. Parallel changes related to tax, the minimum wage, social sector rents and childcare are unlikely to offset these financial losses.

The case is about ESAF, a non-government organization (NGO) based in India, which was helping the underprivileged sections of the society to earn a livelihood by helping them produce and market hand-crafted articles and services. One of the weak links had been the access to the markets which was controlled by distribution channel intermediaries who appropriated larger than their fair share of profits. ESAF management proactively considered the ways and means to make the beneficiaries become independent and self-sustaining. They commenced an initiative to bypass the existing trade channels to reach consumers directly by opening up retail outlets. The challenges were manifold and one of the main decisions taken by them was to sell bought out items to acquire the necessary product assortment. The operation seemed to make some profits and the management was evaluating what would be its best course of action to take the products to end consumers which benefited the artisans the most in a sustainable manner. The case provides a backdrop to such decision making situations and its dilemmas.

Based on a case study of China’s Lenovo computer in the period 1984 to 2008, we develop an evolutionary-institutional framework to explain its growth from entrepreneurial start-up to large established firm. At the start-up stage, Lenovo first drew on the linkage with the social sector to transfer technology. At the growth stage, it leveraged government’s adverse policy as a call to explore new technological fields. At the mature stage, it emphasized learning from multinationals in the market. This framework makes an important contribution to the literature by combining all three paradigmatic theories of economic development to explain the success of Lenovo. Policy implications and future research directions are provided.

The medicinal plant sector is on the increase in many developing countries. Despite this, the existing supply chain is unable to improve the livelihoods of the gatherers. This article considers Gram Mooligai Company Limited (GMCL), the first community-based enterprise active in the herbal sector. GMCL promotes a more equitable sharing of benefits in the sector, while also aiming for a more sustainable use of natural resources. The article draws conclusions and lessons about supporting such types of enterprises, reforming the herbal-sector supply chain, and promoting new forms of partnership between ayurvedic firms and communities.

This study takes an inductive approach in analyzing the roles played by the state, the market, and the social sector in indigenous entrepreneurship development. Data collected from six high-technology companies in China and Taiwan serve to broaden our prior knowledge on how the three institutions work collectively in nourishing indigenous firms at three stages of entrepreneurship development. At the start-up stage, the state influences a firm’s entrepreneurial motivation by creating contexts, providing necessary financial resources, and setting up policy hurdles. At the growth stage, the social sector facilitates technology transfer to indigenous firms and protects them from lawsuits filed by multinational corporations. At the mature stage, the market allows multinational corporations to either enhance or destroy the technological capabilities of local firms. These findings provide strong theoretical and policy implications.

This article is concerned with evaluating the growth performance of states in the Indian Federation. This was sought to be done by estimating growth equations for a group of 19 states in India as well as sub-groups of these states during the period from 1981–1982 to 2004–2005. It has been found that, systematically, the contribution of educational attainment (social sector capital) to the growth process is larger than the contribution of physical capital. An important concern in the article is whether growth regressions estimated for a large group of 19 states can be replicated for smaller sub-groups. The problem of parameter heterogeneity is investigated, and the results of this study show that there is considerable parameter heterogeneity in the growth equations across groups. Rates of convergence estimated in this article also vary from extremely low levels (in the absence of the education variable) to more than 10% (in the presence of the education variable). The results of this study thus point to the great importance of education in improving the growth performance of Indian states.

This contribution examines the Government of India's proposed public–private partnership (PPP) strategies in education in its Tenth and Eleventh Five Year Plans. The analysis aims to ascertain the state's role as financier, manager, and regulator of education in view of the proposed PPP strategies. The analysis shows that strategies strongly link PPPs in education with privatisation, and further, that despite assertions of ‘a greatly expanded role for the state’, the proposed strategies result in a diminished role for the state in education financing, management, and regulation.

Pro-poor decision making depends on an understanding of the complexities and inter-relationships between household livelihood, demographic, and economic factors. This article describes the design and implementation of the Poverty Assessor, a software programme to assist practitioners, policy makers, and researchers in visualising the direct impacts on poverty of specific livelihood factors and events among populations living in poverty. The software enables users to upload their own data and profile households in relation to the national poverty line, by selecting from a range of demographic and livelihood indicators. The authors present findings from the programme, using a dataset from Bolivia.

This paper presents the evaluation of medium-term additional labor force demand based on analysis of projection scenarios of basic macroeconomic indicators of Russian Federation economics during crisis and post-crisis period until 2015. Modeling of additional labor force demand with regard for crisis processes in Russian economics was implemented by formalization of factors that influence labor force dynamics. The verification of projection evaluation of additional labor force demand based on 2009 crisis monitoring data and conditions of dismissed labor force back up during the post-crisis period.

The paper continues the publication started in our journal (2007, no. 1) of the forecasts made in the integrated system “Population, Incomes, Consumption” developed by the Central Economics and Mathematics Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The forecasts cover indicators of social sector financing at different level: macro-level, by population groups, and by family type. The paper shows that expansion of the statistical base and its updating after the population census in 2002 have lead toserious changes in the forecast of the major social policy parameters. Their detailed analysis and conclusions are presented.

Research into national innovation systems (NISs) has received extensive academic and policy attention, and is especially relevant with latecomer countries seeking to innovate in challenging industrial environments. In playing catch up with their early industrializing counterparts, methods of learning take on increased importance in determining industrial success for latecomers. The wind turbine technology innovation system is one that is highly dependent on both the extent of the national learning processes and the strength of the national social-institutional setting. This research investigates the case of Taiwan, a country which has embarked on a program to build its national innovative capacity in wind turbine technologies with specific emphasis on Taiwan’s social sector. Within this system, the spotlight will be on four types of learning processes that interplay during wind turbine development: learning by searching, learning by doing, learning by using, and learning by interacting. Through a case study of the emergence of Taiwan’s burgeoning large-scale wind power technology initiatives, the paper aims to add to the understanding on how methods of learning impact upon the success of innovation systems. The findings show that the industry’s future prospects are constrained because of the limited learning by interacting processes between turbine component producers, turbine owners, and researchers and because of weaknesses in the institutional framework. This research also recognizes the importance that culture has on dominant forms of learning.

While it is internationally agreed that the worst forms of child labour should be eliminated in order to promote children's welfare, the consensus breaks down when trying to define what constitutes ‘light work’. This article seeks to show why it is difficult to get everyone to agree on this issue, focusing on the definition of child labour proposed by the International Labour Organization (ILO).

This paper examines the efficiency of public sector expenditures and foreign aid at achieving social sector outcomes in Small Island Developing States (SIDS). Efficiency is estimated using a Stochastic Production Function (SPF) approach and panel data since 1990. A second stage of the analysis examines the determinants of efficiency. Results indicate that the efficiency of aid and public sectors at improving life expectancy has deteriorated during the 1990s but efficiency at improving school enrolments has increased. Higher levels of governance are associated with higher efficiency. There is also evidence to suggest that efficiency is lower in SIDS, as well as in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Livelihood depends upon development, which directly or indirectly needs intervention of Government, NGOs and Community Organizations, etc. Diversification widens people’s options, encourages spatially diverse transactions, increases cash in circulation in rural areas, and enhances human capital by providing those who diversify with new skills and experiences. People living in country are highly skilled can transform the available resources into something usable for consumption. Microcredit programmes have brought the vibrancy of the market economy to the poorest villages and the people of the World. This business approach to alleviation of poverty has allowed millions of individuals to work their way out of poverty with dignity. The contribution made by livelihood diversification to rural livelihoods is a significant one, which has often been ignored by policy makers. As Pakistan is also a developing country, that is why, we need to identify reasons. To keep these things in mind attempt has been made to identify the reasons of poverty as special objective; and to identify strategies made by country for the reduction of poverty and its consequences. This study is an exploratory research.

It is frequently contended that NGOs and the wider context of development are intrinsically different from other organisational settings within which Human Resource Development (HRD) is believed to play an important role. The author outlines the basic concepts underpinning human development within organisations, and organisational development, and sets out the arguments for greater investment in people. While this can raise ethical and practical issues in organisations that depend on external funds rather than generating their own income, the failure to develop the staff on whom a development organisation ultimately depends carries far greater risks. Management and specifically HRD are not desk-bound activities that can be pursued through the application of protocols and sanctions, but require vision, leadership, and hands-on engagement.

The paper attempts to trace the nexus between defense spending and economic growth in developing countries, using data for 59 developing countries from 1972–2000. The purpose is to measure the opportunity costs of defense spending mainly in terms of alternative public programs. The correlation of social sector expenditures with growth rate as well as the extent of correlation between social and defense sector spending is not clear in the majority of developing countries. It follows that even if defense spending is reduced, the prospects for a peace dividend in the aftermath of the Cold War might be inhibited by political interests that oppose increases in social sector expenditures. If so, defense cutbacks might not lead to a welfare windfall as is generally presumed. Accordingly, this paper tests whether a defense spending cutback will enhance funding for other public programs and whether such a reallocation of resources will prove to be beneficial for the long‐term growth rate of the economy.

The management of public finances continues to be a challenging task not only for the central government, but also for the states since the initiation of rule-based fiscal consolidation. The states have been facing severe fiscal constraints, particularly in sharing own funds for capital formation. The problem sounds acute when it comes to the northeastern (NE) region of India which is faced with several economic and social challenges including financial constraints, poor infrastructure and of course, the unfriendly attitude of the neighbouring states. An attempt is, therefore, made in this chapter to analyse the impact of fiscal rule on social sector spending of NE states of India.